Month: September 2010

Date:14/09/2010 URL: http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/yw/2010/09/14/stories/2010091450431200.htm
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WILD ENCOUNTER

Solitude of leopards

ROHINI RAMAKRISHNAN

The leopards have struck again, scream the headlines of the national newspapers. Week after week, there have been updates, of pilgrims being attacked and the wild animal being caught. What’s happening you wonder, why are these animals attacking humans all of a sudden?

But wildlife officials and researchers who analyse this man – leopard conflict, say that this problem is an ancient one. The leopard is one animal that has lived close to villages, croplands and sugarcane fields unlike man eaters. It slinks in and out of villages especially in rural areas, helping itself to the livestock, goats, pigs, and have a special liking for dogs. In the hamlets around Kodaikanal, villagers become alert when their goats and dogs go missing. They know there is a panther on the prowl!

There are villages in north India where the villagers know that this animal is best left alone. The villagers wisely say “Leave it alone, let it go its own way,” when they come across it and indeed they swear, that the animal will have a good look at you and continue on its way. But take a stick or throw a stone, it turns aggressive and attacks you. So, being on these roads during the dark hours is asking for trouble. The recent unfortunate attacks of the leopard in Tirupati show that the children who were attacked were with their family, climbing the hill in the early hours of the morning when it was still dark. This is the time when nocturnal animals like the panthers hold their own, for it is their world, their habitat.

The vicinity of the pilgrim centres is not clean, with food strewn all over the place. This attracts animals. The temple could maintain a litter-free zone. Keeping these special roads closed in the night for humans and the street lights switched off would help the wild animals to roam freely in their habitat.

Vidya Athreya of the Kaati Trust who is actively involved in the leopard issue, says that the leopard is not very different from the cat, but yes, it is wild. It has strong bonds with its family. The mother, though loving, is strict in her upbringing of the cubs. She teaches them to hunt and fend for themselves. But when the cubs are abandoned — if the mother is killed or caught — the cubs are left to fend for themselves, which is a traumatic experience for them. Some cannot survive on their own with their “training” being incomplete. At times this could be the reason that the animal goes to the villages looking for food as it is an easy way to get it, instead of the proper hunt.

All animals are our national wealth and they need to be protected and preserved. Let the leopard too be on the priority list.

Leopard cubs are extremely playful. A farmer friend once noticed that the young gooseberry trees were broken with snapped branches. Mystified, he kept watch and discovered that the leopard cubs “played” with the trees!

African leopard cubs spend a great deal of time in trees with their mother. They learn at an early age the climbing skills that help them survive as adults. Snow leopard cubs come prepared for the harsh weather of their natural habitat. The mother’s rich milk helps them generate the body heat and grow the body mass necessary to face the long winter ahead.

The Indian leopard ( Panthera pardus fusca) is a leopard subspecies widely distributed in the Indian subcontinent. It is one of the four big cats found in India, apart from the Asiatic lion, the Bengal tiger and the snow leopard. Indian leopards are found all over India, in Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and parts of Pakistan. They inhabit tropical rain forests, dry deciduous forests, temperate forests and northern coniferous forests. India’s Forest Department regularly sets up traps in potential conflict areas and releases the captured leopards in an appropriate habitat away from settlements.

Leopards may sometimes be confused with two other large spotted cats, the cheetah and the jaguar.

However, the patterns of spots in each are different. The leopard normally has rounder, smaller rosettes than those of the jaguar. The cheetah has simple spots, evenly spread; the jaguar has small spots inside the polygonal rosettes. The leopard is larger and much more muscular than the cheetah, but slightly smaller and more lightly built than the jaguar.

Photos:

V.V. Krishnan, Akhilesh

Kumar,

AP

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http://pakobserver.net/detailnews.asp?id=51806

Environment: The vanishing wildlife
Air Marshal Ayaz A Khan (R)
A civilised country guarantees security of life and honour of its citizens, preserves its flora fauna and conserves its birds and animals by proper laws, education and public awareness. In our criminalized society no one is safe any more. Human beings are routinely gunned down without remorse. Birds especially partridges, bustards and quails are shot and netted indiscriminately out of season. And forest mafias have destroyed forests so recklessly that thick jungles have been turned into deserts. When the law and order degrades both humans and animals suffer. While thousands of men, women and children have been gunned down by terrorists and sectarian killers who have yet to be dealt with properly, country’s wildlife i.e. both birds and wild animals has been destroyed with a vengeance. VIPs hunt and kill precious and endangered leopards, black bears, Markhors, foxes, jackals, monkeys Chakors and Ramchakors and partridges with bloody relish. At the time of partition in August 1947 the deserts of Cholistan, the Thar and Thal had abundance of Neel cows, deer, bustards, partridges, while the Northern Areas were teeming with the wildlife. Even in the forests around Murree, Ayubia and Nathiagali wild fowls, Pheasants and leopards were occasionally sighted. Alas that is no more.

The colourful boards warning people not to kill leopards, monkeys, pheasants, Chakors and partridges on the roads of Abbottabad, Murree, Nathiagali and other tourist resorts are more for decoration and effect. No one cares that the endangered leopards, black bears and monkeys are being killed. The sight of hungry bears trapped from Ath Muqam and Lipa Valley in Azad Kashmir, and made to dance with “Nuqails” in their noses in the intense heat of Punjab does not evoke any sympathy or mercy. Thousands of baby monkeys trapped and shackled in steel chains for life, and made to mimic or ride on trucks only evokes derisive laughter. The Pakistani society and culture is to be blamed for the contempt in which animals are held. Educating the public to love animals and birds and protect the threatened and near extinct wildlife should be the priority of every citizen of Pakistan. The efforts of the wildlife departments to save animals from extinction is a challenge because of their limited resources and the negative attitude of the public towards conservation and protection efforts.

Leopards have been in the news recently, and it is time that the public is made aware of the importance of protecting one of the most beautiful animals of the wild. Due to reckless hunting there are only a few leopards left in Pakistan. Common Leopards have survived in very small numbers in the Doonga Gali forest of the Ayubia National Park. Starving and hungry they stray into villages, and towns in search of food during winter months. The sight of a leopard creates unexplained terror. Leopard is called the lion in the Galiat area. Because of the dread and the urge to kill, the common leopard has become a threatened species in Pakistan. A few years back a leopard had strayed into a house in Satellite Town Rawalpindi in search of food. The frightened inmates informed the local police. Policemen reached and shot the leopard dead. It was so heartless. The few leopards alive in the wild are a prized wealth of Pakistan, and resolute effort must be made to ensure that they survive.

Some time back someone presented two leopard cubs to Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif. He reprimanded the gift giver and handed over the cubs to Islamabad zoo, because their mother could not be traced. Four years back in Nathiagali during the month of December, I was informed that eight leopards were regular visitors to the Governor’s House there. It was a cold winter evening when I reached the Governor’s House. I saw lots of pug marks and leopard droppings in the back lawn. Some droppings proved that the leopards had been praying on dogs and monkeys. Reportedly two mother leopards and their six cubs were living in the vicinity. Last year a leopard had entered my neighbours goat shed and had killed his goat. Dogs had mysteriously disappeared from Malach, Mochidara suburb of Nathiagali. Leopards are fond of dog meat. Leopards were sighted on Kooza Gali-Doongagali road and near PAF Base Kalabagh near Nathiagali. Long time back one base commander reportedly shot a leopard dead near PAF Base Kalabagh. There has never been a report during the last fifty years of a leopard attacking a human being. The leopard in its distinct black and white spotted skin is on the run from its most dangerous predator – the man.

Even the remote habitat of the snow leopards has been infiltrated into by blood thirsty humans. The report from Chitral that three snow leopards had killed a Markhor in the Toshi Game Reserve on the Garam Chasma Road proved that the animal has returned to Chitral. The Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Wildlife Department had claimed that seven snow leopards were seen together in the Chitral Gole National Park. The snow leopard lives on the Markhor. Abdul Nawaz Khan DFO Wildlife Cell Chitral told news reporters that “there could be forty snow leopards in Chitral now”. But this appears to be an exaggerated figure. DFO’s statement that foreign hunters could be given permits to kill the snow leopard must be challenged and objected to. According to World Wildlife Organization the snow leopard is a threatened animal, and the number of snow leopards alive could be counted on the fingers. There is no question of issue of permits to VIPs of foreign hunters to kill snow leopards in Chitral or elsewhere in Pakistan.

A reporter in Abbottabad has created commotion by his daily reports (March 14, 15 and 17) about the unfortunate young leopard who unaware of the plight awaiting him had strayed into thickly populated Malikpura locality of Abbottabad city on Sunday morning of March 14, 1999. This leopard after charging at two boys jumped into a house and entered into the bathroom. Abdul Aziz the owner quickly locked the door, and telephoned the police. The local police accompanied by a Magistrate, Conservator of Forests and officials of the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Wildlife Department soon arrived at the house. But the officials had come without a cage or a tranquillizer gun. Later Secretary Forests was contacted in Peshawar for help. Few hours later a special team of Wildlife officers reached Abbottabad with a tranquillizer gun and other equipment to stun and cage the leopard. In the evening the leopard was stunned by a tranquillizer shot, and the officials took the wild cat into their custody. This leopard was an eighteen months old male. It had descended into Malikpurs from the nearby Shimla Hill. They had planned to free this leopard in the Ayubia National Park at Galliyat near Nathiagali.

Next day i.e. on Monday March 15, 1999 the leopard escaped from the custody of the Wildlife Department officials and disappeared. The local people blame the officials for inefficiency. They alleged that the tranquillizer was adulterated. It could have killed the leopard. The police fired at the escaping animal and injured it. But it managed to get away. Authorities are requested to look into the matter. Forest departments handout said that the leopard had escaped into the nearby ravines when the large number of people gathered around the animal started shouting. Dr Mumtaz Malik Conservator Wildlife Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, who has earned a good name as an animal lover, told reporters that the leopard was given two heavy dozes of tranquillizer through the injector gun and was successfully caged. He blamed the disorderly and noisy crowd that caused the leopard to panic, and escape. He said that, “The police fired upon the leopard to save the people.” But the general impression is that the police fired in panic and acted indecisively. It is unfortunate that police firing wounded the leopard. In the operation minor injuries were caused to a divisional forest officer (DFO) and to two children.

The Pakistani leopards have as much right to life as other inhabitants of Pakistan. To educate the readers, reproduced below is an extract from Encyclopedia Britanica: “The leopard formerly PARD (Leo pardus) also called Panther is a big cat closely related to the lion, tiger and other members of the cat family (Falidae). The name leopard was given to the cat now called Cheeta, which was believed to be a cross between lion and the pard. The term pard was eventually replaced by the name leopard. The leopard is found over nearly the whole of Africa south of the Sahara, in north east Africa, and from Asia minor, through central Asia, and Pakistan, Nepal, India to China and Manchuria. It varies greatly in size and markings. Its average size is: weight 50 to 90 Kg i.e. 110 to 200 pounds, length 84 inches, shoulder height 60 to 70 cm. Dark spots are generally arranged in rosettes over much of the body.

The leopard is a solitary animal of the bush and the forest, and is nocturnal in habit. It is an agile climber and frequently stores the remains of its kills in tree branches. It feeds upon any animal it can overpower i.e. from small rodents to water buck, medium sized goats, cattle, antelopes and deer. It has a special liking for dog as a food.” In Galiat it eats monkeys and in Africa Baboons as well. The female produces two to three cubs after a gestation period of three months. The calls of the leopard vary and include a series of harsh coughs, throaty growls, and deep purring sound. Leopard is a tree climber and good swimmer. Leopard spotting, viewing by binoculars photographing and feeding would be interesting and a good sport. Killing and gunning down this beautiful animal is criminal. The few leopards in Pakistan deserve attention, because their survival is threatened. The provincial governments are requested to enact legislation to save the leopard, the black bear and the monkey. Fines and jail terms are suggested for trappers and killers.

Dissecting lions and tigers: Inside Nature’s Giants series 2, part III
Category: community • mammalogy
Posted on: September 6, 2010 9:37 AM, by Darren Naish

Given that big cats are more popular (among the general populace) than are either sharks or snakes, it’s predictable that this was the most discussed, most anticipated episode. Like the others, it was excellent [adjacent image © Windfall Films/Channel 4].

And let me say again how good the whole of ING series 2 was: well done to everyone involved, you left us wanting more. And to those who haven’t seen the series (yet), I hope these articles serve as useful promotional tools – it’s certainly not my intention to steal proverbial thunder. WARNING: total, epic spoiler ahead…

So, to work. Episode 3 featured dissections of both a Lion Panthera leo and Tiger P. tigris* [Panthera taxa shown above (from wikipedia)… but no Snow leopard**]. Mark Evans noted at the start that one of the aims was to see whether lions and tigers are essentially the same under their skins, or whether any differences would become apparent. Most of the filming was done at the Royal Veterinary College: Tecumseh Fitch, a cognitive biologist who you might know best for his publications on mammalian vocal tracts, worked on the dissections with Joy Reidenberg and Andrew Kitchener. Penny Hudson, who works on cheetah locomotion at the RVC, also appeared. Members of the team travelled to Africa to see lions in the wild, while Richard Dawkins discussed the general principles behind predator/prey ‘arms races’.

* Obligatory mention here of the fact that some workers regard P. tigris of tradition as consisting of three phylogenetic species. Under this proposal, the Sumatran tiger P. sumatrae and Javan tiger P. sondaica warrant separation (Cracraft et al. 1998, Mazák & Groves 2006).

** Molecular data indicates firm inclusion of the Snow leopard within Panthera. However, because it differs in throat anatomy, skull shape, tooth shape and limb proportions from definite Panthera species (in some respects it’s rather cheetah-like), some anatomists argue that the Snow leopard warrants placement outside of Panthera and still use the name Uncia uncia for the species [adjacent Snow leopard photo by Bernard Landgraf, from wikipedia].

I know that some viewers were a little disappointed to see that the matter of how lions and tigers can be differentiated wasn’t really elucidated. But perhaps that’s because the two are extremely similar, and it’s this similarity that was concentrated on, rather than the differences. The fact that lions and tigers can produce hybrids was looked at (but this doesn’t mean much about lions and tigers specifically, given that hybrids between just about any and all similar-sized cats are possible and have been produced in captivity) [lion skeleton below, courtesy Windfall Films. Photographed at the University Museum of Zoology, Cambridge, I think].

Indeed, something that couldn’t be covered in the episode is that, yes, lions and tigers are similar, but they’re not especially similar among the big cats; rather, all the big cats (indeed, all cats) are highly similar, and I would say that people only think of lions and tigers as being similar because both are similar in size. Most studies show that tigers and lions aren’t even that close within Panthera: lions are part of a ‘spotted clade’ that also includes leopards and jaguars, while tigers lie elsewhere, possibly being the sister-taxon to the Snow leopard (Bininda-Emonds et al. 2001, Burger et al. 2004, Yu & Zhang 2005, Johnson et al. 2006).

The possible function of the lion’s mane was looked at. As has been discussed on Tet Zoo before [see book cover below], there are several competing hypotheses that hope to explain mane evolution: these explanations may well be overlapping and compatible, and it may also be that different factors take precedence in different parts of the lion’s range. So, while the mane is conventionally regarded as a visual signal of maturity and fitness in some lion populations (Yamaguchi et al. 2004), its development seems to be delayed in some populations (Kays & Patterson 2002) because having a large mane interferes with thermoregulation (Gnoske et al. 2006, Patterson et al. 2006).

Something of incidental interest is the observation that zoo lions typically have larger manes than wild ones (Patterson et al. 2006, pp. 196-197), presumably because their nutrition is better and their manes are subjected to less abrasion than that experienced by wild lions (hmmm… does this explain why there are so many claims of Barbary lions being ‘discovered’ in captivity?). Captive lion cubs are sometimes larger than their wild counterparts, and one study reported that captive tigers have deeper occipital regions than wild animals (Duckler 1998), apparently because captive animals engage in excessive grooming and thereby over-exercise their head and neck musculature. O’Regan (2001) found that the skulls of captive big cats were broader across the zygomatic arches than wild animals, but it wasn’t clear why this was so. Anyway, I digress.

Laryngeal anatomy: why lions are like people

I’m a big fan of laryngeal and tracheal anatomy, and one of the main stories focused on in this episode concerned the structure and function of the big cat larynx and its role in vocalising. Well known (and oft-mentioned) is that big cats differ from little ones in having a ligamentous (rather than ossified) epihyoideum component in the throat skeleton, thereby allowing them to roar (though it is not this component alone that allows roaring (see Hast 1989); as usual, things have turned out to be more complicated). Less well known is that the big cat larynx is positioned well posterior in the throat. Weissengruber et al. (2002) inferred the thyroid cartilage (the largest component of the larynx: the part often called the ‘Adam’s apple’) to be about level with the axis vertebra in Panthera (in contrast, it’s only just behind the rear margin of the lower jaw in a domestic cat and most other ‘ordinarily’ mammals). However, they suggested that, in life, its normal resting position was much lower (as in, level with the 5th-7th cervical vertebra) (see Pérez et al. (2006) for data on tigers) [adjacent picture shows (l ro r) Penny Hudson, Mark Evans and Tecumseh Fitch dissecting the lion’s throat. Image © Windfall Films/Channel 4].

In having such a low-set larynx, Panthera cats resemble us humans, a point made during the episode. Big cats also resemble humans in that the larynx is bigger in males than in females, and it migrates posteriorly as an animal approaches sexual maturity. Worth noting here is that a descended larynx is not unique to big cats and humans*: some deer also have a permanently descended larynx, and koalas, some bats and possibly elephants have one too (Fitch & Reby 2001, Weissengruber et al . 2002, McElligott et al. 2006). I’ve mentioned some of this before when discussing Fallow deer Dama dama (and this reminds me, there’s a near-finished article on the subject of mammal throats and vocalisation waiting in the wings) [lion palate and teeth shown below, image © Windfall Films/Channel 4].

* Seriously, humans are nice and everything, but they’re not all that special. All those old claims about humans being “the only animals capable of [insert behavioural or cognitive trait]”, or “the only animals possessing [insert anatomical component or configuration]” stem from lack of knowledge or data on non-humans.

During the dissection, it was discovered that the lion’s sternohyoid – one of the muscles involved in pulling the larynx down toward the chest during vocalising – attached deeper in the chest than previously thought. This means that the larynx can actually be pulled even further ventrally than hypothesised, hence helping to explain how lions can produce such low fundamental frequencies and low formant frequencies in their roars. The deep-set larynx, combined with the length of the pharynx, very large, fleshy vocal folds and cavernous mouth, has led some workers to propose that the big cat mouth and throat functions in analogous fashion to a brass trumpet (Hast 1989). Even in death, bodies can be made to vocalise: all you have to do is force air from the lungs out through the larynx. In series 1, a dead Nile crocodile was made to vocalise when its trachea was connected to a hose, and the same neat trick was used here on the lion. Nice!

Claws, paws and jaws

The forelimb anatomy of big cats got some coverage. Cat wrists and hands are more flexible that those of carnivorans – like hyaenids and dogs – that don’t use their hands in grappling with prey. We were shown how cat claws only become unsheathed when both the dorsal and ventral tendons on the digits are flexed (the extensor digitorum lateralis and communis tendons dorsally, and the flexor digitorum profundus tendons ventrally). Cat claws are hyper-retracted when not in use, and are actually ‘stored’ in special concavities located on the lateral sides of the penultimate phalanges. Accordingly, those phalanges are strongly asymmetrical. The fore- and hindlimb claws of cats are different in shape and function, with the strongly hooked manual claws acting in prehension and combat, and the more blade-like pedal claws acting in raking (Bryant et al. 1996). Note to dinosaur fans: dromaeosaur pedal digit II claws look similar to cat pedal claws, and this is why I think that a raking/disembowelment role for these claws remains viable (and, in part, why the climbing crampon idea is not). Someone should look into this properly, hint hint [adjacent image: Panthera ligaments involved in claw retraction being manipulated. Image © Windfall Films/Channel 4].

Incidentally, the claw retraction mechanism present in cats isn’t as unique as tradition would have it: Nandinia (the African palm civet) and various viverrids have the same mechanism, and a less elaborate but very similar system is present in some mustelids and procyonids. In fact, retractile claws might be a synapomorphy for the whole of Carnivora (since lost or reduced in many lineages).

ING also covered biting styles and the function of the teeth, and they included a bit of comparison between Panthera and Smilodon [replica skull shown here © Windfall Films]. However, I don’t think that what was said was really up-to-date in terms of current ideas on sabretooth behaviour. Recent studies on the predatory behaviour of these cats indicate that they practised a conventional felid throat bite (aiming for the windpipe and blood vessels) after restraining the prey with massive forelimb and pectoral musculature (Antón & Galobart 1999, Antón et al. 2004).

Final thoughts!

So there we have it. ING ep 3 was great, but (in my opinion), the White shark and giant python articles were better. But that sounds a bit unfair, as all the episodes of series 2 were great. In no way did this second series seem at all ‘samey’ or tired in view of series 1; each episode focused on entirely novel material of the sort not really shown on TV before [image below © Windfall Films/Channel 4].

And the episodes were pretty comprehensive: it occurred to me as I wrote up the python episode that it had covered pretty much everything you would want to touch on when providing an introductory overview to snake anatomy and biology. I also think that the episodes did a good job of finding the right balance in terms of showing both ‘sciencey’ bits (the dissections and discussions of anatomy), and more standard natural history-themed bits. There was more than enough to keep a hard-core nerd interested yet, at the same time, many people with only a passing interest in science, natural history or animals also remained transfixed. The people involved in the series represent a good mix. All came across well: as likeable, knowledgeable and never as arrogant. At the risk of pissing off some of my friends in TV-land, I have to say that at least a few of the people who feature on science-based TV programmes come across as extremely annoying, or extremely arrogant, or both, so it’s nice to walk away from a TV series without a feeling of rage or frustration. So, I am totally happy with ING series 2, I loved it.

As mentioned earlier, a special episode of ING, focusing on giant squid, will be featured some time later this year. I also hear inklings that work on series 3 is underway – I really hope so, and I hope that ING becomes a regular thing on our TV sets. Well done to Windfall Films, to Channel 4, and to everyone involved. You served us well, showed us so much, and did not let us down.

Special thanks to Zach Buchan for his help with this series of articles, to Joy Reidenberg, Penny Hudson, and to Tom Mustill at Windfall Films. If you’re on facebook be sure to ‘like’ Joy’s page.

For other Tet Zoo articles on ING, see…

Inside Nature’s Giants: a major television event worthy of praise and accolade. Part I!
Inside Nature’s Giants part II: whale guts and hindlimbs ahoy
Enough mammals for the time being: crocodiles on Inside Nature’s Giants (part III)
Inside Nature’s Giants part IV: the incredible anatomy of the giraffe
Inside Nature’s Giants, series 2: does Carcharodon bite?
Monster pythons of the Everglades: Inside Nature’s Giants series 2, part II
For previous Tet Zoo articles on cats see…

Belated welcome to a ‘new’ clouded leopard.. named in 1823
Peter Hocking’s big cats: where are you now?
Homage to The Velvet Claw (part I)
Homage to The Velvet Claw (part II)
Europe, where the sabre-tooths, lions and leopards are
Pumas of South Africa, cheetahs of France, jaguars of England
Britain’s lost lynxes and wildcats
Super-size cougars
The Pogeyan, a new mystery cat
The Hayling Island Jungle cat
‘Revising’ the Siberian tiger
And, if you liked the discussion above of laryngeal anatomy and what it might mean for vocalisation, be sure to check out…

Deer oh deer, this joke gets worse every time I use it
Dissecting an emu
Ridiculous super-elongate, coiled windpipes allow some birds to function like trombones – – or is it violins?
Refs – –

Antón, M. & Galobart, À. 1999. Neck function and predatory behavior in the scimitar toothed cat Homotherium latidens (Owen). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 19, 771-784.

– ., Salesa, M. J., Pastor, J. F., Sánchez, I. M., Fraile, S. & Morales, J. 2004. Implications for the mastoid anatomy of larger extant felids for the evolution and predatory behaviour of sabretoothed cats (Mammalia, Carnivora, Felidae). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 140, 207-221.

Bininda-Emonds, O. R. P., Decker-Flum, D. M. & Gittleman, J. L. 2001. The utility of chemical signals as phylogenetic characters: an example from the Felidae. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 72, 1-15.

Bryant, H. N., Russell, A. P., Laroiya, R. & Powell, G. L. 1996. Claw retraction and protraction in the Carnivora: skeletal microvariation in the phalanges of the Felidae. Journal of Morphology 229, 289-308.

Burger, J., Rosendahl, W., Loreille, O., Hemmer, H., Eriksson, T., Götherstrom, A., Hiller, J., Collins, M. J., Wess, T. & Alt, K. W. 2004. Molecular phylogeny of the extinct cave lion Panthera leo spelaea. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 30, 841-849.

Cracraft, J., Feinstein, J., Vaughn, J. & Helm-Bychowski, K. 1998. Sorting out tigers (Panthera tigris): mitochondrial sequences, nuclear inserts, systematics and conservation genetics. Animal Conservation 1, 139-150.

Duckler, G. L. 1998. An unusual osteological formation in the posterior skulls of captive tigers (Panthera tigris). Zoo Biology 17, 135-142.

Fitch, W. T. & Reby, D. 2001. The descended larynx is not uniquely human. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 268, 1669-1675.

Gnoske, T. P., Celesia, G. G. & Kerbis Peterhans, J. C. 2006. Dissociation between mane development and sexual maturity in lions (Panthera leo): solution to the Tsavo riddle? Journal of Zoology 270, 551-560.

Hast MH (1989). The larynx of roaring and non-roaring cats. Journal of anatomy, 163, 117-21 PMID: 2606766

Johnson, W. E., Eizirik, E., Pecon-Slattery, J., Murphy, W. J., Antunes, A., Teeling, E. & O’Brien, S. J. 2006. The Late Miocene radiation of modern Felidae: a genetic assessment. Science 311, 73-77.

Kays, R. W. & Patterson, B. D. 2002. Mane variation in African lions and its social correlates. Canadian Journal of Zoology 80, 471-478.

Mazák, J. H. & Groves, C. P. 2006. A taxonomic revision of the tigers (Panthera tigris) of southeast Asia. Mammalian Biology 71, 268-287.

McElligott, A. G., Birrer, M. & Vannoni, E. 2006. Retraction of the mobile descended larynx during groaning enables fallow bucks (Dama dama) to lower their formant frequencies. Journal of Zoology 270, 340-345.

O’Regan, H. J. 2001. Morphological effects of captivity in big cat skulls. In Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Symposium on Zoo Research. North of England Zoological Society, Chester Zoo, pp. 18-22.

Patterson, B. D., Kays, R. W., Kasiki, S. M. & Sebestyen, V. M. 2006. Developmental effects of climate on the lion’s mane (Panthera leo). Journal of Mammalogy 87, 193-200.

Pérez, W., Lima, M. & Cunarro, B. 2006. Larynx anatomy in a Tiger (Panthera tigris, Linnaeus, 1758). Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances 5, 1093-1095.

Weissengruber, G. E., Forstenpointner, G., Peters, G., Kübber-Heiss, A. & Fitch, W. T. 2002. Hyoid apparatus and pharynx in the lion (Panthera leo), jaguar (Panthera onca), tiger (Panthera tigris), cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) and domestic cat (Felis silvestris f. catus). Journal of Anatomy 201, 195-209.

Yamaguchi, N., Cooper, A., Werdelin, L. & Macdonald, D. W. 2004. Evolution of the mane and group-living in the lion (Panthera leo): a review. Journal of Zoology 263, 329-342.

Yu, L. & Zhang, Y.-p. 2005. Phylogenetic studies of pantherine cats (Felidae) based on multiple genes, with novel application of nuclear β-fibrinogen intron 7 to carnivores. Molecular Phylogenetic and Evolution 35, 483-495.

English.news.cn 2010-09-06 08:02:14
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/indepth/2010-09/06/c_13479848.htm

by Chen Jie

BEIJING, Sep. 6 (Xinhuanet) — The first Chinese expedition to Mount Tomur was politically driven: a move to declare the mountain part of China. It also confirmed Tomur as the highest peak in the Tianshan Mountains, opening the way to scientific expeditions.

The breathtaking region in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region contains some of the world’s most extensive glaciers as well as rich wildlife, including the snow leopard. It is now a nature preserve.

Located in the county of Wensu (Onsu), Mt Tomur – meaning “iron” in Uygur – lies on the border with the former Soviet Union, an area that is now China’s agreed border with Kyrgyzstan. Given its proximity to the border, Mt Tomur has been of considerable political significance over the years.

In 1943, the then Soviet Union sent a team to conduct surveys from the northern slope of Mt Tomur, and in 1946 marked its position on the Sino-Soviet border with a new name: Victory Peak. Ten years later, in 1956, a Soviet team successfully scaled the peak from its northeastern slope.

Some Chinese leaders recognized this as a pressing territorial issue, but the turmoil of the “cultural revolution” (1966-76) put everything on hold. It was only in 1977 that China set out to climb and survey Mt Tomur, an expedition considered to have “substantial political and military significance.”

The Tomur region is also historically important. Prior to the Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD 220), the Tianshan Mountains were called the Northern Mountains, while the Kunlun Mountains were known as the Southern Mountains. Between 139 and 126 BC, the Han Dynasty envoy Zhang Qian (widely credited for opening the Silk Road) crossed the Tianshan Mountains to reach the Ferghana Valley in Central Asia.

During the Tang Dynasty (AD 618-907), the Tomur region was a vital conduit for trade and cultural exchange between Europe and China. Merchants, envoys, monks and missionaries passed through. One of the most prominent travelers was the monk Xuanzang, who documented the glaciers of Tomur on his way to India in AD 629.

Grim reminder

On June 1, 1977, a Chinese team set off to climb – and claim for China – the 7,439-meter Mt Tomur. This was the first large-scale scientific expedition in China after the “cultural revolution.” The team was comprised of national athletes, mountaineers, surveyors from the State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping, and scientists from the Chinese Academy of Sciences.

Getting to the highest peak of the Tianshan Mountains was arduous.

Starting from Beijing, the team took a four-day train ride to Urumqi, capital of Xinjiang, spent another four days on the road to get to Aksu, and then drove for a day to reach base camp near Wensu County. It took another two days on horseback before they arrived at the foot of the mountain.

The terrain is difficult: 60 percent of the 3,000-square-kilometer Tomur region lies above 4,000 meters, so they are permanently covered in ice and snow.

In late June, the contingent set off on horseback. Soon after leaving the camp a horse lost its footing and was swept away by the river below, along with tents, climbing equipment and food. The team decided to walk and lead their frightened horses.

When they reached 3,600 meters on the Qiongtailan Glacier, the landscape opened up and the main peak of Tomur sprang into view. Breathtaking ice formations resembled towers and mushrooms.

Solid reservoir

Moving on, the team saw a dead horse floating in an icy lake; it was fitted with a military-grade saddle, and its limbs were stiff. Yet another horse had perished – a grim reminder of what could happen.

During this journey, the team found themselves walking on what appeared to be a layer of gravel. However, when they scraped it away, they found they were actually walking on ice that was tens or even hundreds of meters thick. This glacier was still on the move, leaving gravel behind. But it was moving too slowly for its speed to be noticed. Glaciers at that elevation of 3,900 meters move at around 72 meters a year, or around 20 centimeters a day.

The Tomur region contains 829 glaciers covering 3,850 square kilometers. The area has a water storage capacity of 500 billion cubic meters, of which two-thirds lie within Chinese territory. The region of Mt Tomur and the neighboring peak of Khan Tengri (6,995 meters) accounts for more than half the ice cover in the Tianshan range. Thus, the glaciers here act as a “solid reservoir” that feeds the oases in the Tianshan Mountains.

Why are there so many glaciers in the region? The peak is part of a cluster of giants with a height of 6,000 meters or more. This natural barrier blocks moisture-laden air from the west, releasing as much as 1,500 to 2,000 millimeters of precipitation that feeds the glaciers.

In July 1977, the Chinese team successfully scaled Mt Tomur, and planted the Chinese flag and a survey marker on its summit.

Snow leopard

As the first Chinese expedition to Tomur in 1977 focused mainly on survey and reconnaissance, the Chinese Academy of Sciences conducted a comprehensive scientific investigation of the region in 1978. This time the team included experts in meteorology, soil, botany, geomorphology, energy and ecology.

The 1978 expedition, which covered more than 9,000 square kilometers, proved fruitful. A hydrological station was set up on the Qiongtailan Glacier at 3,200 meters. Fossils of ancient ferns and animals were discovered in a stratum of sedimentary rock at 4,300 meters.

This marked the first time that fossils were discovered on the southern slopes of Mt Tomur. The scientists also found a rich variety of wildlife: 670 species of alpine plants in 80 families, 76 species of birds in 24 families, more than 40 species of vertebrates in 13 families, and more than 250 insect species in 23 orders. In 1980 the Mt Tomur Reserve was established to protect this trove of highland flora and fauna.

In recent years, scientists have discovered that Mt Tomur is also home to a significant concentration of snow leopards (Uncia uncia). In February 2006, an international team of 12 scientists (from six countries including China, Britain and the United States) conducted a joint survey to spot snow leopards in the Tomur region. It was the first time that the elusive cat was observed and photographed by expert witnesses.

According to a conservative estimate by researcher Ma Ming, from the Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, there were five snow leopards within 200 square kilometers in the Tomur region. This compared favorably with an estimate by renowned biologist George Schaller, who in 1989 counted around 750 snow leopards in a 170,000-square kilometer habitat in Xinjiang.

(Source: Shanghai Daily)

Siberian scientists to track snow leopards using ‘photo traps’

16:38 03/09/2010

Russian scientists will install special video cameras – so-called photo traps – to monitor endangered snow leopards in southwestern Siberia, the Altai Nature Reserve’s deputy security head said on Friday.

Russia has an estimated total of 150 of the large mountain cats, which are in the Red Book of Endangered Species.

Usually weighing 35 to 55 kilograms, the snow leopard is slightly smaller than a leopard. Exceptional large males can weigh up to 75 kg. The head and body length is 100 to 130 cm, and the shoulder height is about 60 cm.

Seven photo traps have been already installed in the Argut River valley in the Altai mountains and 11 more cameras are due to be installed in the fall, Sergei Spitsyn said.

The U.S.-made gadgets are equipped with sensory devices that launch photo capturing when the animal approaches.

The scientists say photo shooting currently is the most effective method of monitoring animals inhabiting reserved areas. It has long been used in Russia’s Far East for supervision of the Far East leopard.
“Each snow leopard has a unique fur-pattern. Actually, if images of body parts are obtained, it will be possible to identify each animal,” Spitsyn said.

Snow leopards are hunted for their skin, meat and bones, which are widely used in traditional Chinese medicine.

NOVOSIBIRSK, September 3 (RIA Novosti)
http://en.rian.ru/Environment/20100903/160456508.html