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Anonymous. Central Asian Republic Snow Leopard Specialists Plan Joint Conservation Strategy.
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Aramov, B. (1997). The Biology of the Snow Leopard in the Gissarsky Nature Reserve. In R. and A. A. Jackson (Ed.), (pp. 108–109). Lahore, Pakistan: Islt.
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Aromov B. (1995). The Biology of the Snow Leopard in the Hissar Nature Reserve.
Abstract: The work contains data on biology snow leopard in Hissar nature reserve, Uzbekistan. The number of snow leopards in this reserve has increased from two or four in 1981 to between 13 and 17 individuals in 1994. Since 1981, snow leopards have been sighted 72 times and their tracks or pugmarks 223 times. In the Hissar Nature Reserve snow leopards largely feed on ibex. Over a period of 14 years, 92 kills and remains of ibex aged from one to thirteen years of age have been examined. Other records of predation, by the number of events observed, include 33 cases of juvenile and mature horses, 25 long-tailed marmot (Marmota caudata). 18 Himalayan snowcock (Tetraogallus himalayemis), 17 domestic goat, 13 wild boar (Sus scrofa), five domestic sheep and three incidents involving cattle. Twenty-two attacks on domestic flocks were reported, and these occurred during both the daytime and at night. Snow leopards usually mate between the 20th of February and March 20th. The offspring are born in late April to May, and there are usually two per litter (23 encounters), although a single litter of three has also been recorded.
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Bobrinskiy N.A. (1967). Mountains of Central Asia.
Abstract: It provides a zoogeographical description of Central Asia mountains: Tien Shan (west and east), Pamir, the Turkestan and Hissar ridges, and ruinous mountains in Kyzylkum. Distribution of various animal species over the area under study is described. Data concerning Central Asia sheep, ibex, and snow leopard in the alpine meadow zone, and data concerning the otter (in the Tupalang river basin) and grey partridge is presented. The author noted that generally fauna of Tien Shan, Hissar, and Pamir is similar to that of Inner Asia. The other type of fauna more similar to that of Transcaucasia is typical for Kopet-Dag.
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Chundawat, R. S., & Rawat G.S. (1990). Food Habits of Snow Leopard in Ladakh, India.
Abstract: The snow leopard has remained little studied in the past, and most of the information available is either in the form of natural history or anecdotal notes. The inaccessibility of the terrain and its secretive habits make this one of the more difficult animals to study in the wild. In the past decade, several ecological surveys were conducted in India, Nepal, China and Mongolia, which gave us information on the status and distribution of snow leopard (Jackson, Mallon, Fox, Schaller, Chundawat) A detailed study in Nepal through light on its secretive habits ( Jackson and Ahlborn, 1989). Even then little is known about its feeding habits. The present paper discusses this aspect from a study which was part of a detailed study conducted on the ecology of snow leopard in India from October 1987 to Feburary 1990.
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Dementiev G.P. (1967). Quadrupeds inhabitants of the mountains.
Abstract: All species inhabiting the highlands of Asia are normally referred to as herbivorous or predators. A majority of alpine land species (rodents and ungulates) feeds upon leaves, stalks, and roots of plants. Among widely distributed highland species the most interesting are marmots, red pica, grey vole, argali, and ibex. Argali and ibex are preyed on by snow leopards. There are reasons to believe that these mountain animal species are more ancient than their cognates in a plain. All the way from Central Asia to Europe, species belonging to the eastern and western fauna complexes are observed to interpenetrate.
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Esipov A.V. (2000). Current state of snow leopard and its main preys in Hissar nature reserve.
Abstract: An expert evaluation of the numbers of snow leopard and its preys, Siberian ibex and long-tailed marmot, was made on the basis of surveys conducted in Hissar nature reserve in 1999. The total number of the snow leopard is estimated at 12-16 individuals, whereas that of the Siberian ibex at 1000 individuals. An average density of the population of the long tailed marmot ranges at 4,8 individuals per ha. The ratio of the numbers between the snow leopard, Siberian ibex and long tailed marmot is 1:68:450. The major threats for the snow leopard are poaching on the borders of the nature reserve, a decrease in of preys, shrinking of the range in areas adjoining the nature reserve as a result of intensification of industrial activities and disturbing factors. For the Siberian ibex and long tailed marmot the major limiting factors are the shrinking of the areas and deterioration of the forage value of the high-mountain pastures, as well as the direct competition for forage with domestic animals at the sites adjoining the territory of the nature, as well as disturbing factors.
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Filla, M., Lama, R. P., Ghale, T. R., Filla, T., Heurich, M., Waltert, M., Khorozyan, I. (2022). Blue sheep strongly affect snow leopard relative abundance but not livestock depredation in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal. Global Ecology and Conservation, 37(e02153), 1–15.
Abstract: Large carnivores play key roles in their ecosystems, but their protection is a major challenge in biodiversity conservation due to conflicts with human interests. The snow leopard (Panthera uncia) is the top predator of Asian high-altitude landscapes and faces various threats including wild prey depletion and illegal killings as a consequence of livestock depredation. As the interactions between snow leopards, wild prey, and livestock are still insufficiently understood, we studied the effects of 1) wild prey (blue sheep Pseudois nayaur and Himalayan marmots Marmota himalayana) and domestic prey on snow leopard relative abundance, and of 2) these ecological parameters and intervention applications on livestock depredation by snow leopards. In the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal, we monitored wildlife populations and livestock along transects (490.8 km) in 82 grid cells (4 ×4 km) in 2019 and 2021 and conducted questionnaire surveys to determine livestock depredation between 2018 and 2021 (n = 479 households). We applied generalized linear models (GLMs) and sample comparison testing to examine the effects of prey densities and other environmental and anthropogenic predictors on snow leopard relative abundance and livestock depredation. Blue sheep density strongly positively affected snow leopard relative abundance, which also increased with terrain ruggedness and decreased with increasing densities of livestock and the human population. The size of livestock holdings shaped depredation events of large livestock (yak, cattle and horse), whereas depredation events of sheep and goats, which accounted for most (68.6%) depredated animals, decreased with increasing human population density and marmot presence. The strong impact of blue sheep on snow leopard relative abundance supports demands for integrating this ungulate into conservation and management plans, including wild prey recovery and translocation. The rather weak evidence for effects of blue sheep on depredation events suggests that conflicts over livestock depredation by snow leopards would neither be inflicted nor solved by increasing wild prey abundance. This demonstrates the need to improve intervention strategies in the Annapurna region, such as predator-proofing corrals and optimizing daytime herding practices. We suggest further exploring the effects of marmots and other secondary prey on livestock depredation rates, and testing the suitability of additional interventions, e.g., dogs and deterrents, as conflict mitigation tools. Our results will support wildlife managers in setting conservation priorities to promote the long-term co-existence of local people and snow leopards.
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Fox, J. L., & Chundawat, R. S. (1997). Evaluation of Snow Leopard Sign Abundance in the Upper Indus Valley. In R.Jackson, & A.Ahmad (Eds.), (pp. 66–74). Lahore, Pakistan: Islt.
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Jafri, R. H., & Shah, F. (1994). The role of education and research in the conservation of snow leopard and its habitat in Northern Pakistan. In J.L.Fox, & D.Jizeng (Eds.), (pp. 273–277). Usa: Islt.
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Miller, D. J., & Jackson, R. (1994). Livestock and Snow Leopards:making room for competing users on the Tibetian Plateau. In J.L.Fox, & D.Jizeng (Eds.), (pp. 315–328). Usa: Islt.
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Mitropolskiy O.V. (2004). Biodiversity of mammals in Uzbekistan: results of the studies; conservation, use and monitoring projects (Vol. N 8.).
Abstract: The article reviews conservation projects regarding valuable species of the West Tien Shan such as snow leopard, Tien Shan brown bear, Tien Shan and Karatau argali, Menzbier's marmot. The questioning revealed three cases of poaching snow leopard in the West Tien Shan in Kazakhstan, and 11 in Uzbekistan. A necessity to severely suppress any acts of poaching or skin trade is emphasized. A number of measures is suggested to preserve the species.
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Moiseev V. (1993). Around Tien Shan and Hissaro-Alai.
Abstract: A visit to a nature reserve, where the author met protected animals, is described in a popular form. It describes the encounters with wild boar, griffon vulture, brown bear, Menzbier's marmot, Tien Shan souslik, golden eagle, snow leopard, and Siberian ibex.
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Mongolian Biosphere & Ecology Association. (2010). Mongolian Biosphere & Ecology Association Report March 2010.
Abstract: In accordance with order of the Ministry of Nature and Tourism,
zoologists of our association have made surveys in three ways such as
reasons why snow leopards attack domestic animals, “Snow leopard” trial
operation to count them and illegal hunting in territories of Khovd,
Gobi-Altai, Bayankhongor, Uvurkhangai and Umnugobi provinces from
September 2009 to January 2010. As result of these surveys it has made
the following conclusions in the followings: Reason to hunt them illegally: the principal reason is that
administrative units have been increased and territories of
administrative units have been diminished. There have been four
provinces in 1924 to 1926, 18 since 1965, 21 since 1990. Such situation
limits movements of herdsmen completely and pastures digressed much than
ever before. As result of such situation, 70% of pastures become desert.
Such digression caused not only heads of animals and also number of
species. Guarantee is that birds such as owls, cuckoo, willow grouse in
banks of Uyert river, Burkhanbuudai mountain, located in Biger soum,
Gobi-Altai province, which are not hunted by hunters, are disappearing
in the recent two decades. For that reason we consider it is urgently
necessary for the government to convert administrative unit structures
into four provinces. This would influence herdsmen moving across
hundreds km and pastures could depart from digression.
Second reason: cooperative movement won. The issues related to management and strengthening of national
cooperatives, considered by Central Committee of Mongolian People's
Revolutionary Party in the meeting in March 1953 was the start of
cooperatives' movement. Consideration by Yu. Tsedenbal, chairman of
Ministers Council, chairman of the MPRP, on report "Result of to unify
popular units and some important issues to maintain entity management of
agricultural cooperatives" in the fourth meeting by the Central
Committee of Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party /MPRP/ on December
16-17, 1959, proclaimed complete victory of cooperative. At the end of
1959, it could unify 767 small cooperative into 389 ones, unify 99.3 %
of herdsmen and socialize 73.3 % of animals. The remaining of animals
amount 6 million 163 thousands animals, and equals to 26.7% of total
animals. This concerned number of animals related to the article
mentioned that every family should have not more that 50 animals in
Khangai zone and not more 75 animals in Gobi desert. It shows that such
number could not satisfy needs of family if such number is divided into
five main animals in separating with reproduction animals and adult
animals. So herdsmen started hunt hoofed animals secretly and illegally
in order to satisfy their meat needs. Those animals included main food
of snow leopard such as ibex, wild sheep, and marmot. Third reason is that the state used to hunt ibex, which are main
nutrition of snow leopards, every year. The administrative unit of the
soum pursued policy to hunt ibex in order to provide meat needs of
secondary schools and hospitals. That's why this affected decrease of
ibex population. Preciously from 1986 to 1990 the permissions to hunt
one thousands of wild sheep and two thousands of ibexes were hunt for
domestic alimentary use every year. Not less than 10 local hunters of every soum used to take part in big
game of ibexes. Also they hunted many ibexes, chose 3-10 best ibexes and
hid them in the mountains for their consummation during hunting.
Fourth reason: hunting of wolves. Until 1990 the state used to give
prizes to hunter, who killed a wolf in any seasons of the year. Firstly
it offered a sheep for the wolf hunter and later it gave 25 tugrugs /15
USD/. Every year, wolf hunting was organized several times especially
picking wolf-cubs influenced spread and population of wolves. So snow
leopard came to the places where wolves survived before and attack
domestic animals. Such situation continued until 1990. Now population of
ibexes has decreased than before 1990 since the state stopped hunting
wolves, population of wolves increased in mountainous zones. We didn't
consider it had been right since it was natural event. However
population of ibexes decreased. Fifth reason: Global warming. In recent five years it has had a drought
and natural disaster from excessive snow in the places where it has
never had such natural disasters before. But Mongolia has 40 million
heads of domestic animals it has never increased like such quantity in
its history before. We consider it is not incorrect that decrease of
domestic animals could give opportunities to raise population of wild
animals. Our next survey is to make attempt to fix heads of snow leopards
correctly with low costs.
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Oli, M. K. (1994). Snow leopards and local human population in a protected area: a case study from the Nepalese Himalaya. In J.L.Fox, & D.Jizeng (Eds.), (pp. 51–64). Usa: International Snow Leopard Trust, Seattle, Washington.
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Oli, M. K., Taylor, I. R., & Rogers, M. K. (1993). Diet of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal. Journal of Zoology London, 231(3), 365–370.
Abstract: The diet of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) was studied from 213 scats collected between April 1990 and February 1991 in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal. Seven species of wild and five species of domestic mammals were taken, as well as an unidentified mammal and birds. Blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) were the most frequently eaten prey. Himalayan marmots (Marmota himalayana) were also important, except in winter when they were hibernating. During winter, snow leopards ate more Royle's pika (Ochotona roylei) and domestic livestock. Yaks were eaten more frequently than other livestock types.
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Plakhov K.N. (2002). Menzbier's marmot in Kazakhstan.
Abstract: Menzbier's marmot is preyed on by snow leopard, bear, wolf, fox, bearded vulture, golden eagle, black vulture, and raven. A harm caused by the predators to the Kazakhstan population of marmot made up 2,000 3,000 in 2001.
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Schaller, G. B. (1987). Status of large mammals in the Taxkorgan Reserve, Xinjiang, China. Biological-Conservation, 42(1), 53–71.
Abstract: A status survey of large mammals was conducted in the W half of 14 000 km“SUP 2” Taxkorgan Reserve. Only one viable population of fewer than 150 Marco Polo sheep Ovis ammon poli survives; it appears to be augmented by adult males from Russia and Afghanistan during the winter rut. Asiatic ibex Capra ibex occur primarily in the western part of the reserve and blue sheep Pseudois nayaur – the most abundant wild ungulate – in the E and SE parts. The 2 species overlap in the area of contact. Counts revealed an average wild ungulate density of 0.34 animals km“SUP -2”. Snow leopard Panthera uncia were rare, with possibly 50-75 in the reserve, as were wolves Canis lupus and brown bear Ursus arctos. The principal spring food of snow leopard was blue sheep (60%) and marmot (29%). Local people have greatly decimated wildlife. Overgrazing by livestock and overuse of shrubs for fuelwood is turning this arid steppe habitat into desert. -from Authors
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Schaller, G. B., Jurang, R., & Mingjiang, Q. (1988). Status of snow leopard (Panthera-uncia) in Qinghai-Province and Gansu Province-China. Biological Conservation, 45(3), 179–194.
Abstract: The status and distribution of the snow leopard Panthera uncia was investigated in two provinces of China. The cats occur over about 65,000km2 or 9% of the Qinghai Province, and in a few places along the western edge of Gansu Province. In many areas the animals have in recent decades been decimated or locally eradicated, as have their prey. Counts of wild ungulates in 9 mountain block, totalling 1375km2, known for abundant wildlife, had an average of 1.4-5.4 animals km2, principally blue sheep Psuedois nayaur, which together with marmot Marmota himalayana, represent the snow leopards main prey. Possibly 650 snow leopards survive in Qinghai but shooting and trapping of this legally protected animal and the hunting of blue sheep for local consumtion and export threaten their existence.
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Tserendeleg, J. (1997). Status and Conservation of Snow Leopard in Mongolia. In R.Jackson, & A.Ahmad (Eds.), (pp. 42–47). Lahore, Pakistan: International Snow Leopard Trust.
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ud Din, J. (2008). Assessing the Status of Snow Leopard in Torkhow Valley, District Chitral, Pakistan: Final Technical Report.
Abstract: This study was aimed at assessing the status of Snow leopard, its major prey base, and the extent of human-Snow leopard conflict and major threats to the wildlife in north Chitral (Torkhow valley) Pakistan. Snow leopard occurrence was conformed through sign transect surveys i.e. SLIMS. Based on the data collected the number of Snow leopards in this survey block (1022 Kmý) is estimated to be 2-3 animals. Comparing this estimate with the available data from other parts of the district the population of snow leopard in Chitral district was count to be 36 animals. Livestock depredation reports collected from the area reflect the existence of human-snow leopard conflict and 138 cases were recorded affecting 102 families (in a period of eight years, 2001-2008). Ungulates (Himalayan Ibex) rut season surveys were conducted in coordination with NWFP Wildlife department. A total of 429 animals were counted using direct count (point method) surveys. Other snow leopard prey species recorded include marmot, hare, and game birds. Signs of other carnivores i.e. wolf, jackal, and fox were also noticed. Major threats to the survival of wildlife especially snow leopard reckoned include retaliatory killing (Shooting, Poisoning), poaching, loss of natural prey, habitat degradation (over grazing, fodder and fuel wood collection), lack of awareness, and over population. GIS map of the study area was developed highlighting the area searched for Snow leopard and its prey species. Capacity of the Wildlife Department staff was built in conducting SLIMS and ungulate surveys through class room and on field training. Awareness regarding the importance of wildlife conservation was highlighted to the students, teachers and general community through lectures and distribution of resource materials developed by WWF-Pakistan.
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