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Ahmad, A., Rawat, J. S., & Rai, S. C. (1990). An Analysis of the Himalayan Environment and Guidelines for its Management and Ecologically Sustainable Development. Environmentalist, 10(4), 281–298.
Abstract: The impacts of human activities on the bio-geophysical and socio-economic environment of the Himalayas are analysed. The main man-induced activities which have accelerated ecological degradation and threatened the equilibrium of Himalayan mountain ecosystems are stated as: unplanned land use, cultivation on steep slopes, overgrazing, major engineering activities, over-exploitation of village or community forests, lopping of broad leaved plant species, shifting cultivation (short cycle) in north-east India, tourism and recreation. The geomorphological conditions are major factors responsible for landslides which cause major havoc every year in the area. Wild fauna, like musk deer and the snow leopard are now under threat partially due to changes in their habitat and the introduction of exotic plant species. Population pressure and migration are major factors responsible for poverty in the hills. The emigration of the working male population has resulted in the involvement of women as a major work-force. Guidelines, with special emphasis on the application of environmental impact assessments for the management of the Himalayas, are proposed. -from Authors
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Ale, S. B. (1997). The Annapurna Conservation Area Project: A Case Study of an Integrated Conservation and Development Project in Nepal. In R. Jackson, & A. Ahmad (Eds.), (pp. 155–169). Lahore, Pakistan: Islt.
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Ale, S. B., Yonzon, P., & Thapa, K. (2007). Recovery of snow leopard Uncia uncia in Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) National Park, Nepal (Vol. 41).
Abstract: From September to November 2004 we conducted surveys of snow leopard Uncia uncia signs in three major valleys in Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) National Park in Nepal using the Snow Leopard Information Management System, a standardized survey technique for snow leopard research. We walked 24 transects covering c. 14 km and located 33 sites with 56 snow leopard signs, and 17 signs incidentally in other areas. Snow leopards appear to have re-inhabited the Park, following their disappearance c. 40 years ago, apparently following the recovery of Himalayan tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus and musk deer Moschus chrysogaster populations. Taken together the locations of all 73 recent snow leopard signs indicate that the species is using predominantly grazing land and shrubland/ open forest at elevations of 3,000-5,000 m, habitat types that are also used by domestic and wild ungulates. Sagarmatha is the homeland of c. 3,500 Buddhist Sherpas with .3,000 livestock. Along with tourism and associated developments in Sagarmatha, traditional land use practices could be used to ensure coexistence of livestock and wildlife, including the recovering snow leopards, and ensure the wellbeing of the Sherpas.
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Allen, P. (1999). WWF Progress Report: Irbis Enterprises Snow Leopard Conservation Incentive Project.
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Anandakrishnan, M. B. (1998). The snow leopard: Elusive and endangered. The Environmental Magazine, 9(5), 18–19.
Abstract: The snow leopard has never been common, but there may be fewer than 4,000 left in its Himalayan habitat, and poaching and tourism-related development in the region could drive its numbers down further.
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Anonymous. (1992). International Specialists Discuss China's Threatened Cats.
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Anonymous. (1994). Resolutions Conservation of Snow Leopard, Seventh International Snow Leopard Symposium. In J.L.Fox, & D.Jizeng (Eds.), (pp. 329–331). Usa: Islt.
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Baral N., Stern, M., & Heinen, J. T. (2007). Integrated conservation and development project life cycles in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal: Is development overpowering conservation? Biodiversity Conservation, 16(10), 2903–2917.
Abstract: The merits of integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs), which aim to provide development incentives to citizens in return for conservation behaviors, have long been debated in the literature. Some of the most common critiques suggest that conservation activities tend to be strongly overpowered by development activities. We studied this assertion through participant observation and archival analysis of five Conservation Area Management Committees (CAMCs) in the Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA), Nepal. Committee activities were categorized as conservation activities (policy development and conservation implementation), development activities (infrastructure, health care, education, economic development, and sanitation), or activities related to institutional strengthening (administrative development and capacity building activities). Greater longevity of each ICDP was associated with greater conservation activity in relation to development activities. Project life cycles progressed from a focus on development activities in their early stages, through a transitional period of institutional strengthening, and toward a longer-term focus that roughly balanced conservation and development activities. Results suggest that the ICDP concept, as practiced in ACA, has been successful at building capacity for and interest in conservation amongst local communities. However, success has come over a period of nearly a decade, suggesting that prior conclusions about ICDP failures may have been based on unrealistic expectations of the time needed to influence behavioral changes in target populations.
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Berenstein, F. (1984). The snow leopard. Fusion in an Elaborated Delusional Fantasy. Am J Psychoanal, 44(4), 377–397.
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Broder, J., MacFadden, A., Cosens, L., Rosenstein, D., & Harrison, T. (2008). Use of Positive Reinforcement Conditioning to Monitor Pregnancy in an Unanesthetized Snow Leopard
(Uncia uncia) via Transabdominal Ultrasound (Vol. 27).
Abstract: Closely monitoring snow leopard (Uncia uncia) fetal developments via transabdominal ultrasound, with minimal stress to the animal, was the goal of this project. The staff at Potter Park Zoo has used the principles of habituation, desensitization, and positive reinforcement to train a female snow leopard (U. uncia). Ultrasound examinations were preformed on an unanesthetized feline at 63 and 84 days. The animal remained calm and compliant throughout both procedures. Fetuses were observed and measured on both occasions. The absence of anesthesia eliminated components of psychologic and physiologic stress associated with sedation. This was the first recorded instance of transabdominal ultrasound being carried out on an unanesthetized snow leopard. It documents the feasibility of detecting pregnancy and monitoring fetal development via ultrasound.
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Ferguson, D. A. (1997). International Cooperation for Snow Leopard and Biodiversity Conservation: The Government Perspective. In R.Jackson, & A.Ahmad (Eds.), (pp. 178–193). Lahore, Pakistan: Islt.
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Gaughan, M., & Doherty, J. (1982). Snow leopard rearing: Infant development with particular emphasis on play behaviour. In L. Blomqvist (Ed.), International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, Vol. 3 (Vol. 3, pp. 121–126). Helsinki: Helsinki Zoo.
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Gurung, C. P. (1997). Ecotourism: Nepal's Experience. In R.Jackson, & A.Ahmad (Eds.), (pp. 170–177). Lahore, Pakistan: Islt.
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Johnston, L. A., Donoghue, A. M., O'Brien, S. J., & Wildt, D. E. (1991). Rescue and maturation in vitro of follicular oocytes collected from nondomestic felid species. Biol Reprod, 45(6), 898–906.
Abstract: The potential for rescuing immature oocytes from the ovaries of females of rare felid species which die or undergo medical ovariohysterectomy was evaluated. Ovaries were recovered from 13 species representing 35 individuals in good-to-poor health. Although the majority of females were 10 yr of age or older and in fair-to-poor health, a total of 846 oocytes were recovered of which 608 (71.9%) were classified as fair-to- excellent quality. One hundred of these oocytes were used for initial maturation classification and as parthogenetic controls. Overall, of the 508 fair-to-excellent quality oocytes placed in culture, 164 (32.3%) matured to metaphase II in vitro. For species in which 3 or more individuals yielded oocytes, mean oocyte maturation rates were as follows: 36.2%, tiger; 27.9% leopard; and 8.3%, cheetah. In vitro insemination of oocytes resulted in fertilization (2 polar bodies, 2 pronuclei, or cleavage) rates of 9.1% to 28.6% (leopard) using homologous fresh spermatozoa and 4.0% (lion) to 40.0% (puma) using homologous frozen-thawed spermatozoa. Inseminations using heterologous (domestic cat) spermatozoa also resulted in fertilized oocytes in the tiger, leopard, snow leopard, puma, serval, and Geoffroy's cat (range in fertilization rate, 5.0% for leopard to 46.2% for puma). Cleaved embryos resulted from the insemination of leopard oocytes with homologous sperm (n = 1 embryo) and puma oocytes with domestic cat sperm (n = 3 embryos). These results demonstrate that immature ovarian oocytes from rare felid species can be stimulated to mature in vitro despite an excision-to-culture interval as long as 36 h.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Kreuzberg-Mukhina, E., Esipov A.V., Bykova, E. A., Vashetko, E. V., & Aromov, B. (2003). Development of the national Action Plan for the conservation of Snow Leopard in Uzbekistan. Report: 1-51 (Vol. 1-51). Uzbekistan.
Abstract: This document is the final report on the ISLT Project “Development of national Action plan for the conservation of Snow Leopard in Uzbekistan” and a Conservation Strategy for the Snow leopard in Uzbekistan. It includes biology and current status, limiting factors, existing and necessary conservation measures.
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Ming, M. (2001). The Problems About Conservation of Wildlife Animals In Xinjiang. Arid Land Geography, 24(1), 47–51.
Abstract: As an important part of the ecosystem in the world, the wild are highly sensitive to impel the public to pay an increasing attention to the vertebrates and their habitats. The region from Xinjiang to Central Asian countries and from north China to Mongolia, explored less by zoologists. The region is mainly consisted of deserts and high mountain ranges many lakes and rivers that provide the suitable habitats for wildlife. These are actually unknown. Conservation in the modern sense is a very important part of development, especially in the Western Development of China. This paper deals with the species diversity and vertebrates' conservation in Xinjiang. Since 1980, over 20 Iocal nature reserves and 4 nationaI nature reserves have been established in Xinjiang. There are about 700 vertebrate species (in 5 classesœª37 ordersœr97 familiesœª196 genera) in Xinjiang. These cover about 134 species of mammalsœª392® 430 species of birdsœr40® 45 species of reptilesœª6® 7 species of amphibians and 93® 120 fishes. With the rapid economic development, some protected areas exist only in name. The areas are not only havens for wild species, but also maintain ecological benefits. Xinjiang is a very special region in China. The wild animals are different from those in other provinces along the east coast and in the interior. There are many questions about the conservation of wild animals in Xinjiang, e.g. the threatened species distinguishing, distribution and management, etc. So the paper is for reference only to the Great Development of Western China.
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Norberg-Hodge, H. (1981). Ladakh: Developement without Destruction. In J. S. Lall (Ed.), The Himalaya: Aspects of Change (pp. 278–284). New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
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O'Connor, T., & Freeman, H. (1982). Maternal behavior and behavioral development in the captive snow leopard (Panthera uncia). In L. Blomqvist (Ed.), International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, Vol. 3 (Vol. 3, pp. 103–110). Helsinki: Helsinki Zoo.
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Pollock, R. V., & Carmichael, L. E. (1983). Use of modified live feline panleukopenia virus vaccine to immunize dogs against canine parvovirus. Am J Vet Res, 44(2), 169–175.
Abstract: Modified live feline panleukopenia virus (FPLV) vaccine protected dogs against canine parvovirus (CPV) infection. However, unlike the long- lived (greater than or equal to 20-month) immunity engendered by CPV infection, the response of dogs to living FPLV was variable. Doses of FPLV (snow leopard strain) in excess of 10(5.7) TCID50 were necessary for uniform immunization; smaller inocula resulted in decreased success rates. The duration of immunity, as measured by the persistence of hemagglutination-inhibiting antibody, was related to the magnitude of the initial response to vaccination; dogs with vigorous initial responses resisted oronasal CPV challenge exposure 6 months after vaccination, and hemagglutination-inhibiting antibodies persisted in such dogs for greater than 1 year. Limited replication of FPLV in dogs was demonstrated, but unlike CPV, the feline virus did not spread to contact dogs or cats. Adverse reactions were not associated with living FPLV vaccination, and FPLV did not interfere with simultaneous response to attenuated canine distemper virus.
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Raghavan, B., Bhatnagar, Y., & Qureshi, Q. (2003). Interactions between livestock and Ladakh urial (Ovis vignei vignei); final report.
Abstract: The Ladakh urial (Ovis vignei vignei) is a highly endangered animal (IUCN Red List 2000) listed in the Appendix 1 of CITES and Schedule 1 of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act 1972. Its numbers had been reduced to a few hundred individuals in the 1960s and 70s through hunting for trophies and meat (Fox et al. 1991, Mallon 1983, Chundawat and Qureshi 1999, IUCN Red List 2000). However, with the protection bestowed by the IWPA 1972, and resultant decrease in hunting, the population seems to have shown a marginal increase to about 1000-1500 individuals in its range in Ladakh (Chundawat and Qureshi 1999, IUCN Red List 2000). Although the species had in the past, been able to coexist with the predominantly Buddhist society of Ladakh, the recent increase in the population of both humans and their livestock has placed immense pressures on its habitat (Shackleton 1997, Chundawat and Qureshi 1999, Raghavan and Bhatnagar 2003). This is especially important considering that the Ladakh urial habitat coincides with the areas of maximum human activity in terms of settlements, agriculture, pastoralism and development, in Ladakh (Fox et al. 1991, Chundawat and Qureshi 1999, Raghavan and Bhatnagar 2003). Increased developmental activities such as construction of roads, dams, and military bases in these areas have also increased the access to their habitat. This has consequently made the species more vulnerable to the threats of poaching and habitat destruction (Fox et al. 1991, Chundawat and Qureshi 1999, Raghavan and Bhatnagar 2002). Pressure from increased livestock grazing is one of the major threats faced by the species today (Shackleton 1997, Fox et al. 1991, Mallon 1983, IUCN Red List 2000 Chundawat and Qureshi 1999, Raghavan and Bhatnagar 2003). In the impoverished habitat provided by the Trans-Himalayas, there is great competition for the scarce resources between various animal species surviving here (Fox 1996, Mishra 2001). The presence of livestock intensifies this competition and can either force the species out of its niche (competitive exclusion) by displacing it from that area or resource, or lead to partitioning of resources between the species, spatially or temporally, for coexistence (Begon et al. 1986, Gause 1934).
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Rawat, G. S., Pandey, S., & Panwar, H. S. (1994). Eco-development and management needs for snow leopard conservation in Himalayan Protected Areas. In J.L.Fox, & D.Jizeng (Eds.), (pp. 297–303). Usa: Islt.
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Rosen, T. (2010). From Yellowstone to the Karakorums: A journey to understand conflicts with large carnivores. NRCC News, 23(1), 12–13.
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Schacter, A., Fitzgerald, K., & Doherty, J. (1980). Development of a snow leopard with and away from mother and siblings in the first six months. In L. Blomqvist (Ed.), International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards (Vol. 2, pp. 112–126). Helsinki: Helsinki Zoo.
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Shrestha, B. (2008). Prey Abundance and Prey Selection by Snow Leopard (uncia uncia) in the Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park, Nepal.
Abstract: Predators have significant ecological impacts on the region's prey-predator dynamic and community structure through their numbers and prey selection. During April-December 2007, I conducted a research in Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park (SNP) to: i) explore population status and density of wild prey species; Himalayan tahr, musk deer and game birds, ii) investigate diet of the snow leopard and to estimate prey selection by snow leopard, iii) identify the pattern of livestock depredation by snow leopard, its mitigation, and raise awareness through outreach program, and identify the challenge and opportunities on conservation snow leopard and its co-existence with wild ungulates and the human using the areas of the SNP. Methodology of my research included vantage points and regular monitoring from trails for Himalayan tahr, fixed line transect with belt drive method for musk deer and game birds, and microscopic hair identification in snow leopard's scat to investigate diet of snow leopard and to estimate prey selection. Based on available evidence and witness accounts of snow leopard attack on livestock, the patterns of livestock depredation were assessed. I obtained 201 sighting of Himalayan tahr (1760 individuals) and estimated 293 populations in post-parturient period (April-June), 394 in birth period (July -October) and 195 November- December) in rutting period. In average, ratio of male to females was ranged from 0.34 to 0.79 and ratio of kid to female was 0.21-0.35, and yearling to kid was 0.21- 0.47. The encounter rate for musk deer was 1.06 and density was 17.28/km2. For Himalayan monal, the encounter rate was 2.14 and density was 35.66/km2. I obtained 12 sighting of snow cock comprising 69 individual in Gokyo. The ratio of male to female was 1.18 and young to female was 2.18. Twelve species (8 species of wild and 4 species of domestic livestock) were identified in the 120 snow leopard scats examined. In average, snow leopard predated most frequently on Himalayan tahr and it was detected in 26.5% relative frequency of occurrence while occurred in 36.66% of all scats, then it was followed by musk deer (19.87%), yak (12.65%), cow (12.04%), dog (10.24%), unidentified mammal (3.61%), woolly hare (3.01%), rat sp. (2.4%), unidentified bird sp. (1.8%), pika (1.2%), and shrew (0.6%) (Table 5.8 ). Wild species were present in 58.99% of scats whereas domestic livestock with dog were present in 40.95% of scats. Snow leopard predated most frequently on wildlife species in three seasons; spring (61.62%), autumn (61.11%) and winter (65.51%), and most frequently on domestic species including dog in summer season (54.54%). In term of relative biomass consumed, in average, Himalayan tahr was the most important prey species contributed 26.27% of the biomass consumed. This was followed by yak (22.13%), cow (21.06%), musk deer (11.32%), horse (10.53%), wooly hare (1.09%), rat (0.29%), pika (0.14%) and shrew (0.07%). In average, domestic livestock including dog were contributed more biomass in the diet of snow leopard comprising 60.8% of the biomass consumed whilst the wild life species comprising 39.19%. The annual prey consumption by a snow leopard (based on 2 kg/day) was estimated to be three Himalayan tahr, seven musk deer, five wooly hare, four rat sp., two pika, one shrew and four livestock. In the present study, the highest frequency of attack was found during April to June and lowest to July to November. The day of rainy and cloudy was the more vulnerable to livestock depredation. Snow leopard attacks occurred were the highest at near escape cover such as shrub land and cliff. Both predation pressure on tahr and that on livestock suggest that the development of effective conservation strategies for two threatened species (predator and prey) depends on resolving conflicts between people and predators. Recently, direct control of free – ranging livestock, good husbandry and compensation to shepherds may reduce snow leopard – human conflict. In long term solution, the reintroduction of blue sheep at the higher altitudes could also “buffer” predation on livestock.
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Wingard, J. R., & Zahler, P. (2006). Silent Steppe: The Illegal Wildlife Trade Crisis in Mongolia (East Asia and Pacific Environment and Social Development Department, Ed.). Washington D.C.: World Bank.
Abstract: The current study in Mongolia is truly groundbreaking, in that it shows that the problem of commercial wildlife trade is also vast, unsustainable, and a major threat to wildlife populations in other areas. This paper's Executive Summary briefs the topics of wildlife trade in Mongolia, fur trade, medicinal trade, game meat trade, trophy and sport hunting, trade chains and markets, trade sustainability, impacts of wildlife trade on biodiversity conservation, impacts of trade on rural livelihoods, enabling wildlife management, and management recommendations. The main content of the paper includes: wildlife trade survey methods, a history of wildlife trade in Mongolia, wildlife take and trade today, enabling wildlife management, and recommendations and priority actions. The recommendations have been divided into six separate sections, including (1) cross-cutting recommendations, (2) international trade enforcement, (3) domestic trade enforcement, (4) hunting management, (5) trophy and sport hunting management, and (6) community-based approaches. Each section identifies short-term, long-term, and regulatory goals in order of priority within each subsection.
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