Li, X., Wei, C., Chen, X., Jia, D., Li, P., Liang, S., Jikmed, A., Gao, Y., Zhao, X., Chu, M., Sharma, K., Alexander, J. A., Lu, Z., Xiao, L. (2025). First large‑scale assessment of snow leopard population in China using existing data from multiple organizations. Biodiversity and Conservation, , 1–17.
Abstract: Abundance estimation of large carnivores is essential for their effective conservation planning, yet estimating population size is challenging due to their elusive and wide-ranging nature. China is estimated to encompass 60% of the snow leopard Panthera uncia habitat, making it a crucial pillar for global snow leopard conservation. However, no large-scale population assessment has been conducted despite scattered survey effort accumulating rapidly in recent years. This study combined and standardized existing camera trap sur-
vey data from 12 sites collected by four organizations during 2015 ~ 2021 to estimate snow leopard population in an area of 360,000 km2 on the Tibetan Plateau, China. The representativeness of existing survey was evaluated based on two habitat stratification approaches to achieve less biased population assessment. Spatially explicit capture-recapture (SECR) models were applied for snow leopard density estimation and the top-ranked model showed a significant positive correlation between conservation priority strata and density. An average snow leopard density of 0.90 /100 km2 (95% CI: 0.68 ~ 1.21 /100 km2) and a population size of 1,002 (95% CI: 755 ~ 1,341) individuals was estimated for the defined snow leopard habitat. Two more conservative estimates of 971 (95% CI: 732 ~ 1,287) and 978 (95% CI: 737 ~ 1,267) individuals were generated within two defined survey regions, in which our data had higher representativity. This study presents a practical approach to synthesize existing population survey data for large-scale population assessments of individually identifiable species. The estimated number represents 11 ~ 21% of the global snow leopard population, indicating high conservation value of this region.
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Jiangzuo, Q., Madurell-Malapeira, J., Xinhai, L., Estraviz-Lopez, D., Mateus, O., Testu, A., Li, S., Wang, S., Deng, T. (2025). Insights on the evolution and adaptation toward high- altitude and cold environments in the snow leopard lineage. Science Advances, 11(eadp5243), 1–14.
Abstract: How snow leopard gradually adapted to the extreme environments in Tibet remains unexplored due to the scanty fossil record in Tibet. Here, we recognize five valid outside-Tibet records of the snow leopard lineage. Our results suggest that the snow leopard dispersed out of the Tibetan Plateau multiple times during the Quaternary. The osteological anatomy of the modern snow leopard shows adaptation to the steep slope and, to a lesser extent, cold/high-altitude environment. Fossils and phylogeny suggest that the snow leopard experienced a gradual strengthening of such adaptation, especially since the Middle Pleistocene (~0.8 million years). Species distribution modeling suggests that the locations of the fossil sites are not within most suitable area, and we argue that local landscape features are more influential factors than temperature and altitude alone. Our study underscores the importance of integrating morphology, fossil records, and species distribution modeling, to comprehensively understand the evolution, ecology, and inform conservation strategies for endangered species.
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Kau, M., Weckworth, B. V., Li, S., Pires, M.M., Jin, D., Pacifici, M., Rondinini, C., Boitani, L., McCarthy, T. M., Lu, Z., Schaller, G. B., Beissinger, S. R., Li, J. (2025). Umbrella, keystone, or flagship? An integrated framework for identifying effective surrogate species. Biological Conservation, 303(111025), 1–12.
Abstract: The global biodiversity crisis demands targeted conservation strategies that maximize impact despite limited
resources. Surrogate species approaches, particularly using umbrella, keystone, and flagship species, offer
practical targets for conservation planning that may indirectly benefit ecosystems. However, selecting target
species is often hindered by conceptual ambiguities and inconsistent methodologies. To address these challenges, we present an integrative framework that systematically identifies effective surrogate species through Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) combined with big data. Our framework quantifies each species' conservation potential using three indices: an Umbrella index, a Keystone index, and a Flagship index. The Umbrella index assesses habitat overlap using Area of Habitat (AOH) data, the Keystone index is calculated through a network analysis of predator-prey relationships, and the Flagship index analyzes public interest via Google Trends and Baidu Index. These indices are integrated into a composite Effectiveness index using the Multi-Attribute Utility Theory (MAUT) model, with sensitivity analysis to evaluate the robustness of species rankings. We applied this framework to Three-River-Source National Park in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Our results identified the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) as the most effective surrogate species among mammals, ranking first in both the Flagship and Keystone indices, and tenth in the Umbrella index, leading to its top position in the composite Effectiveness index. This data-driven, transparent approach enhances objectivity in surrogate species selection, promising more strategic and impactful biodiversity conservation efforts worldwide.
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Krofel, M., Oliveira, T., Rovero, F., Groff, C., Augugliaro, C., Oberosler, V., Allen, M. L. (2025). Communication behavior of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia): understanding marking-behavior patterns to optimize camera- trapping studies. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 79(32), 1–13.
Abstract: Many carnivores rely on marking behavior for intraspecific communication with potential mates and competitors, using scent and visual markings to advertise their use of a territory and allow potential mates to assess their quality. However, obtaining data on communication behaviors of rare and elusive animals can be challenging. To better understand marking behavior of snow leopard (Panthera uncia), we combined camera-trapping, snow-tracking and transect counts of scrapes in the Altai Mountains, Mongolia, and measured frequencies of communication behaviors in both space and time. Next, we explored if this information could be used to improve the efficiency of snow leopard population monitoring through camera-trapping. Using the combination of all three methods, we detected seven communication behaviors. Most visits at marking sites began with sniffing (recorded at 56.4% visits) before progressing to other behaviors. Urine spraying
(17.7% of visits) and scraping (16.8%) were exhibited at significantly more visits than other communication behaviors (flehmen, head/body rubbing, fecal deposition, claw marking). According to the snow-tracking data conducted in optimal habitats, scraping was the most frequent marking behavior with 12.8 scrapes/km, followed by urine marking with 10.5 marks/km. Along 32 transects, we recorded a mean of 8.0 cumulative scrapes/km, with highest marking rates recorded in gorges, which we recommend as prime habitats for deploying camera-traps. Finally, our results suggest that the number of scrapes observed at potential camera-trapping sites represents a good predictor of snow leopard visitation rate. Therefore, this parameter can be used when choosing camera-trapping locations to increase the efficiency of monitoring programs.
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Talukdar, A., Bhasin, A., Patel, D., Raina, P., Tonde, P., Savita, P. (2025). Clinical and physiological evaluation of free-ranging snow leopards immobilized with ketamine-xylazine in emergency situations. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 12(1492640), 1–7.
Abstract: The current study presents data on the immobilization and physiological responses of 26 distressed free-ranging snow leopards (Panthera uncia) in the trans-Himalayan regions of Ladakh, India, spanning three years from October 2020 to December 2023. Ketamine and xylazine were utilized in a drug mixture
for rescue, rehabilitation, health assessment, and other capture purposes, with average doses of 6.535 ± 0.93 mgkg−1 and 1.937 ± 0.41 mgkg−1 of body weight, respectively. The average induction occurred at 3.85 ± 1.8 min. Respiratory rate, rectal temperature, and heart rate were monitored periodically post-induction, all remaining within clinically acceptable ranges. Following an average recumbency period of 70.69 ± 16.56 min, immobilizations were reversed using intramuscular injections of Yohimbine at 0.147 ± 0.03 mgkg−1 of body weight, leading to complete recovery within an average time of 24.92 ± 7.08 min. Our findings suggest that the ketamine and xylazine mixture represents a safe and effective method for immobilizing snow leopards, particularly in emergency scenarios.
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Ding, Y., Wu, N., Liu, Y. Zhong, H., Cering, L. Shi, K. (2025). New records of the clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa in the Qomolangma National Nature Reserve, Tibet. Oryx, , 1.
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Yang, L., Jin, H., Yang, Q., Poyarkov, A., Korablev, M., Rozhnov, V., Shao, J., Fu, Q., Hernandez-Blanco, J. A., Zhan, X., Yu, L., Alexandrov, D., Dai, Q., Munkhtsog, B., Du, X., Munkhtsog, B., Ma, L., Chen, W., Malykh, S., Jin, Y., He, S., Zhang, T., Wu, G., Shi, Y., Hu, Y. (2025). Genomic evidence for low genetic diversity but purging of strong deleterious variants in snow leopards. Genome Biology, 26(94), 1–3.
Abstract: Background
Long-term persistence of species with low genetic diversity is the focus of widespread
attention in conservation biology. The snow leopard, Panthera uncia, is a big cat from high-alpine regions of Asia. However, its subspecies taxonomy, evolutionary history, evolutionary potential, and survival strategy remain unclear, which greatly hampers their conservation.
Results
We sequence a high-quality chromosome-level genome of the snow leopard and the genomes
of 52 wild snow leopards. Population genomics reveal the existence of two large genetic lineages in global snow leopards, the northern and southern lineages, supported by the biogeography. The Last Glacial Maximum drove the divergence of two lineages. Microclimate differences and large rivers between the western and central Himalayas likely maintain the differentiation of two lineages. EPAS1 is positively selected in the southern lineage with almost fixed amino acid substitutions and shows an increased allele frequency with elevation. Compared to the southern lineage, the northern lineage exhibits a lower level of genomic
diversity and higher levels of inbreeding and genetic load, consistent with its recent population decline. We find that snow leopards have extremely low genomic diversity and higher inbreeding than other Carnivora species; however, strong deleterious mutations have been effectively purged in snow leopards by historical population bottlenecks and inbreeding, which may be a vital genetic mechanism for their population survival and viability.
Conclusions
Our findings reveal the survival strategy of a species with low genetic diversity and highlight the importance of unveiling both genetic diversity and genetic burden for the conservation of threatened species.
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Subba, S. A., Acharya, H. R., Shrestha, S., Koirala, S., Shrestha, R., Thapa, G. J., Thapa, K., Shrestha, A., Malla, S., Bhattarai, G. P., Poudyal, L. P., Khadka, M. B., Gurung, G. S., Bhatta, S. R., Dhakal, M., Subedi, N., Pradhan, N. M. B., Bhandari, A. R., Jnawali, S. R., Limbu, K. P., Dhakal, B. K., Thapa, K. (2025). Lessons for Transboundary Snow Leopard Conservation: Findings From a GPS Telemetry Study in Kangchenjunga Conservation Area, Nepal. Integrative Conservation, 4, 45–56.
Abstract: Ensuring the long‐term persistence of snow leopards (Panthera uncia) in changing landscapes requires a deep understanding of their spatial ecology and movement behavior. To maintain viable metapopulations and ensure gene flow between populations, there is an urgent need to develop sound and effective conservation plans. This study presents findings from Nepal's first GPS telemetry study of snow leopards, shedding light on their home range size, habitat selection, and transboundary movements. GPS data were collected from four snow leopard individuals in the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area, eastern Nepal, over tracking periods ranging from 20 to 659 days, yielding a total of 4707 location points. We used three home range estimators
for analysis: local convex hulls (LoCoH), fixed kernels (Kernel), and minimum convex polygons (MCP). Our results show that home range sizes were 6 to 97 times larger than previous estimates for Nepal, with LoCoH estimates of 310 and 102 km2 (MCP = 730 and 211 km2) for two adult females and 312 km2 (MCP = 1032 km2) for one adult male. Three snow leopards crossed international borders five to seven times, spending, on average, 10%–34% of their time in neighboring countries (China and India), with 28%–50% of their home ranges overlapping India. Our study demonstrates that snow leopards in Nepal have home ranges that are significantly larger than previously documented and frequently cross international borders. These extensive transboundary movements highlight the need for stronger coordination between Nepal, China, and India to ensure the long‐term conservation of snow leopards in this key region of their distributional range.
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Zhang, Y., Dai, Y., Li, J., Cong, W., Zhang, Y., Nie, X., Wu, Q., Xue, Y. (2025). Climate Change and Human Pressure: Assessing the Vulnerability of Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia) Habitat Integrated With Prey Distribution on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Ecology and Evolution, , 1–15.
Abstract: Climate change is significantly altering the distribution of large carnivores and their primary prey species, with particular emphasis on the changing prey distribution in high- altitude regions. The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, known for its rich biodiversity, is highly sensitive to climate change, affecting the habitats of snow leopards (Panthera uncia) and blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur). Our study identified blue sheep as the primary prey of snow leopards through metagenomic analysis and used bioclimatic data and Land Use/Cover Change (LUCC) information to model habitat suitability under three climate scenarios (RCP 2.6, RCP 4.5, and RCP 8.5). Projections showed that under RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5, snow leopard habitats will decrease by 13.0% and 23.4%, while blue sheep habitats will decrease by 38.3% and 49.7%, respectively. These habitats are expected to shift to higher altitudes, with snow leopards experiencing a more significant shift. Based on these findings, we recommend adjusting protected area boundaries for S1 (Ideal distribution range), establishing ecological corridors for S2 (stepping stone), and implementing targeted measures to mitigate human-wildlife conflicts in S3 (potential conflict area). To protect these species, international efforts to reduce carbon emissions, cross- administrative cooperation, and community-based conservation strategies are essential.
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Khan, T. U., Nabi, G., Ahmad, S., Hu, H., Hu, Y., Puswal, S. M., Ghaznavi, M., Luan, X. (2025). Hide and seek in time and space: Spatiotemporal segregation between snow leopard and its prey in Northern Pakistan.59(e03543), 1–14.
Abstract: Temporal niche-partitioning is a key strategy for prey to avoid predators and for predators to
successfully coexist sympatrically. However, little is known about the temporal and spatial dynamics of snow leopards with key prey species. We investigated the spring daily activity patterns and spatial density distributions of snow leopard (Panthera uncia), Himalayan ibex (Capra ibex sibirica), and domestic yak (Bos grunniens) to unravel the spatiotemporal behavior within their shared alpine habitat in Northern Pakistan using trail cameras data. The results indicated that snow leopards exhibited a bimodal activity pattern, with peaks around midnight and dawn. In contrast, the ibex displayed a predominantly diurnal pattern, starting at dawn and minimally overlapping with the snow leopard. Attended yaks showed a uniform diurnal activity pattern
under human protection, while unattended yaks exhibited irregular activity across day and night, suggesting higher vulnerability to predation. Spatial density analysis revealed notable overlaps between species pairs, particularly unattended yaks and snow leopards, highlighting the influence of spatial dynamics on predator-prey interactions. The clear off-phased and contrasting pattern of activity between snow leopard and ibex in our study showed temporal partitioning in spring and indicates that unattended yak may be a more heavily predated species than previously thought. This study provides the first comparative analysis of temporal activity patterns between a key predator and wild and domestic prey in Northern Pakistan. This research broadens our understanding of animal behavior through the lens of spatiotemporal interactions and provides insights into the complex dynamics between predator and prey in the challenging alpine landscape. Our
findings emphasize the importance of livestock guarding to mitigate depredation and highlight the complexities of predator-prey interactions in both time and space, along with the resulting behavioral adaptions.
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