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Lovari, S., Ventimiglia, M., Minder, I. (2013). Food habits of two leopard species, competition, climate change and upper treeline: a way to the decrease of an endangered species? Ethology Ecology & Evolution, 25(4), 305–318.
Abstract: For carnivore species, spatial avoidance is one of the evolutionary solutions to
coexist in an area, especially if food habits overlap and body sizes tend to coincide.
We reviewed the diets of two large cats of similar sizes, the endangered snow leopard
(Panthera uncia, 16 studies) and the near-threatened common leopard (Panthera par-
dus, 11 studies), in Asia. These cats share ca 10,000 km2 of their mountainous range,
although snow leopards tend to occur at a significantly higher altitude than common
leopards, the former being a cold-adapted species of open habitats, whereas the latter
is an ecologically flexible one, with a preference for woodland. The spectrum of prey
of common leopards was 2.5 times greater than that of snow leopards, with wild prey
being the staple for both species. Livestock rarely contributed much to the diet. When
the breadth of trophic niches was compared, overlap ranged from 0.83 (weight categories)
to one (main food categories). As these leopard species have approximately
the same size and comparable food habits, one can predict that competition will arise
when they live in sympatry. On mountains, climate change has been elevating the
upper forest limit, where both leopard species occur. This means a habitat increase
for common leopards and a substantial habitat reduction for snow leopards, whose
range is going to be squeezed between the forest and the barren rocky altitudes, with
medium- to long-term undesirable effects on the conservation of this endangered cat
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Rosen, T. H., S. Mohammad, G. Jackson, R. Janecka, J, E. Michel, S. (2012). Reconciling Sustainable Development of Mountain Communities With Large Carnivore Conservation. Mountain Research and Development, (32(3)), 286–293.
Abstract: While the world is becoming increasingly interconnected and interdependent, physically and culturally, the wildlife of remote mountain regions is being affected both positively and negatively by such interconnectedness. In the case of snow leopards, the conservation impact has been largely, and rather unexpectedly, positive: Species-focused conservation projects, such as Project Snow Leopard (PSL) in
Gilgit-Baltistan, remain mainly externally driven initiatives. PSL, initiated as a small pilot project in 1998, has relied on an approach that includes the use of an insurance scheme, the deployment of mitigation measures, and the empowerment of local governance. This approach has been successful in
reducing the conflict with snow leopards and has built greater tolerance toward them. PSL is managed by local communities and cofinanced by them. PSL communities throughout the region are bearing the burden of carnivore conservation, and they are unwittingly subsidizing their populations by ‘‘feeding’’
them their livestock even though they are an economic threat to them. In this article, we argue that external intervention in the form of efforts that help alleviate the consequences of conflict through local empowerment have had a positive impact on the local mountain societies. We also show that such interventions have resulted in tangible conservation results, with the number of snow leopards staying at least stable. Our experience also shows that while the incentive component is critical, it is also part of a larger approach—one that includes developing and supporting local governance structures, improving access to education, and offering a range of tools to reduce the conflict that can be implemented
locally. Finally, we suggest that investing in this approach— one that recognizes the species and local-context complexities surrounding the implementation of conservation incentives—can continue to inform international practices and guidelines for reducing human–wildlife conflicts worldwide.
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Dickman, A., Macdonald, E., Macdonald, D. (2011). A review of financial instruments to pay for predator conservation and encourage human–carnivore coexistence. PNAS, 108(34), 13937–13944.
Abstract: One of the greatest challenges in biodiversity conservation today is how to facilitate protection of species that are highly valued at a global scale but have little or even negative value at a local scale. Imperiled species such as large predators can impose significant economic costs at a local level, often in poverty-stricken rural areas where households are least able to tolerate such costs, and impede efforts of local people, especially traditional pastoralists, to escape from poverty. Furthermore, the costs and benefits involved in predator conservation often include diverse dimensions, which are hard to quantify and nearly impossible to reconcile with one another. The best chance of effective conservation relies upon translating the global value of carnivores into tangible local benefits large enough to drive conservation “on the ground.” Although human–carnivore coexistence involves significant noneconomic values, providing financial incentives to those affected negatively by carnivore presence is a common strategy for encouraging such coexistence, and this can also have important benefits in terms of reducing poverty. Here, we provide a critical overview of such financial instruments, which we term “payments to encourage coexistence”; assess the pitfalls and potentials of these methods, particularly compensation and insurance, revenuesharing, and conservation payments; and discuss how existing strategies of payment to encourage coexistence could be combined to facilitate carnivore conservation and alleviate local poverty.
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ud Din, J. (2008). Assessing the Status of Snow Leopard in Torkhow Valley, District Chitral, Pakistan: Final Technical Report.
Abstract: This study was aimed at assessing the status of Snow leopard, its major prey base, and the extent of human-Snow leopard conflict and major threats to the wildlife in north Chitral (Torkhow valley) Pakistan. Snow leopard occurrence was conformed through sign transect surveys i.e. SLIMS. Based on the data collected the number of Snow leopards in this survey block (1022 Kmý) is estimated to be 2-3 animals. Comparing this estimate with the available data from other parts of the district the population of snow leopard in Chitral district was count to be 36 animals. Livestock depredation reports collected from the area reflect the existence of human-snow leopard conflict and 138 cases were recorded affecting 102 families (in a period of eight years, 2001-2008). Ungulates (Himalayan Ibex) rut season surveys were conducted in coordination with NWFP Wildlife department. A total of 429 animals were counted using direct count (point method) surveys. Other snow leopard prey species recorded include marmot, hare, and game birds. Signs of other carnivores i.e. wolf, jackal, and fox were also noticed. Major threats to the survival of wildlife especially snow leopard reckoned include retaliatory killing (Shooting, Poisoning), poaching, loss of natural prey, habitat degradation (over grazing, fodder and fuel wood collection), lack of awareness, and over population. GIS map of the study area was developed highlighting the area searched for Snow leopard and its prey species. Capacity of the Wildlife Department staff was built in conducting SLIMS and ungulate surveys through class room and on field training. Awareness regarding the importance of wildlife conservation was highlighted to the students, teachers and general community through lectures and distribution of resource materials developed by WWF-Pakistan.
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Johnsingh, A. J. T. (2006). A roadmap for conservation in Uttaranchal.
Abstract: The enchanting state of Uttaranchal, carved out of Uttar Pradesh on 9th November 2000, has a total area of ca. 53,485 km2 with a population density of 160 persons/ km2, much lower than the national average of 324/km2. This young state can take pride in the fact that 13.42% of its area is under protected areas. The state has varied landscapes: snow-capped and conifer forest covered mountains in the north, forest covered foothills with numerous perennial rivers and streams, locally known as the bhabar tract which includes the Himalayan foothills and the Shivalik range. As a result, the land is home to a variety of fascinating wildlife such as the golden mahseer (Tor putitora), king cobra (Ophiophagus hanna), Himalayan monal (Lophophorus impejanus), great hornbill (Buceros bicornis), Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), bharal (Pseudois nayaur), Himalayan musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster), goral (Nemorhaedus goral), elephant (Elephas maximus), snow leopard (Panthera uncia), leopard (P. pardus), black bear (Ursus thibetanus), and tiger (P. tigris). All across their range, most of these species are endangered. The potential of this state, with about 800 kilometers of riverine habitat, can only be surpassed by Arunachal Pradesh in terms of golden mahseer conservation. The mountains, bedecked with the scarlet flowers of rhododendron (Rhododendron arboreum) in the summer months, can be a veritable home to many forms of pheasants, mountain ungulates and carnivores, provided poaching for trade is eliminated and hunting for the pot is brought under control. The bhabar forests of this state, ca. 7,500 km2, extending between Yamuna and Sharda rivers (Fig. 1.), can easily support a population of about 1000 elephants and 200 tigers as long as this large habitat, now fragmented in three blocks, is managed and protected as one continuous habitat for wildlife. Six villages, gujjar settlements and encroachments need to be moved away from the main wildlife habitat which goes along the bhabar tract. Although the conservation of these habitats can eventually bring in immense benefits through well-planned ecotourism programmes that are rapidly catching up in the state, initial conservation efforts would need a substantial amount of funds.
Keywords: carnivores, conservation, forest, habitat, hunting, landscape, Panthera uncia, poaching, snow leopard, species, tiger, Uncia uncia, ungulates, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal
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Johnson, W. E., Eizirik, E., Pecon-Slattery, J., Murphy, W. J., Antunes, A., Teeling, E., et al. (2006). The Late Miocene Radiation of Modern Felidae: A Genetic Assessment (Vol. 311).
Abstract: Modern felid species descend from relatively recent (G11 million years ago) divergence and speciation events that produced successful predatory carnivores worldwide but that have confounded taxonomic classifications. A highly resolved molecular phylogeny with divergence dates for all living cat species, derived from autosomal, X-linked, Y-linked, and mitochondrial gene segments (22,789 base pairs) and 16 fossil calibrations define eight principal lineages produced through at least 10 intercontinental migrations facilitated by sea-level fluctuations. A ghost lineage analysis indicates that available felid fossils underestimate (i.e., unrepresented basal branch length) first occurrence by an average of 76%, revealing a low representation of felid lineages in paleontological remains. The phylogenetic performance of distinct gene classes showed that Y-chromosome segments are appreciably more informative than mitochondrial DNA, X-linked, or autosomal genes in resolving the rapid Felidae species radiation.
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Waits, L. P., Buckley-Beason, V. A., Johnson, W. E., Onorato, D., & McCarthy, T. (2006). A select panel of polymorphic microsatellite loci for individual identification of snow leopards (Panthera uncia)
(Vol. 7).
Abstract: Snow leopards (Panthera uncia) are elusive endangered carnivores found in remote mountain regions of Central Asia. New methods for identifying and counting snow leopards are needed for conservation and management efforts. To develop molecular genetic tools for individual identification of hair and faecal samples, we screened 50 microsatellite loci developed for the domestic cat (Felis catus) in 19 captive snow leopards. Forty-eight loci were polymorphic with numbers of alleles per locus ranging from two to 11. The probability of observing matching genotypes for unrelated individuals (2.1 x10-11) and siblings (7.5x10-5) using the 10 most polymorphic loci was low, suggesting that this panel would easily discriminate among individuals in the wild.
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Mishra, C., & Bagchi, S. (2006). Living with large carnivores: predation on livestock by the snow leopard (Uncia uncia). Journal of Zoology, , 1–8.
Abstract: Livestock predation by large carnivores and their retaliatory persecution by pastoralists are worldwide conservation concerns. Poor understanding of the ecological and social underpinnings of this human-wildlife conflict hampers effective conflict management programs. The endangered snow leopard Uncia uncia is involved in conflict with people across its mountainous range in South and Central Asia, where pastoralism is the predominant land use, and is widely persecuted in retaliation. We examined human-snow leopard conflict at two sites in the Spiti region of the Indian Trans-Himalaya, where livestock outnumber wild ungulates, and the conflict is acute. We quantified the snow leopard's dependence on livestock by assessing its diet in two sites that differed in the relative abundance of livestock and wild ungulates. We also surveyed the indigenous Buddhist community's attitudes towards the snow leopard in these two sites. Our results show a relatively high dependence of snow leopards on livestock. A higher proportion of the snow leopard's diet (58%) was livestock in the area with higher livestock (29.7 animals km^2) and lower wild ungulate abundance (2.1-3.1 bharal Pseudois nayaurkm^2), compared with 40% of diet in the area with relatively lower livestock (13.9km^2) and higher wild ungulate abundance (4.5-7.8 ibex Capra ibexkm^2). We found that the community experiencing greater levels of livestock losses was comparatively more tolerant towards the snow leopard. This discrepancy is explained by the presence of a conservation-incentive program at the site, and by differences in economic roles of livestock between these two communities. The former is more dependent on cash crops as a source of income while the latter is more dependent on livestock, and thereby less tolerant of the snow leopard. These data have implications for conflict management strategies. They indicate that the relative densities of livestock and wild prey may be reasonable predictors of the extent of predation by the snow leopard. However, this by itself is not an adequate measure of the intensity of conflict even in apparently similar cultural settings.
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Mishra, C., Madhusudan, M. D., & Datta, A. (2006). Mammals of the high altitudes of western Arunachal Pradesh, eastern Himalaya: an assessment of threats and conservation needs (Vol. 40).
Abstract: The high altitudes of Arunachal Pradesh,India, located in the Eastern Himalaya biodiversity hotspot, remain zoologically unexplored and unprotected. We report results of recent mammal surveys in the high altitude habitats of western Arunachal Pradesh. A total of 35 mammal species (including 12 carnivores, 10 ungulates and 5 primates) were recorded, of which 13 are categorized as Endangered or Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. One species of primate, the Arunachal macaque Macaca munzala, is new to science and the Chinese goral Nemorhaedus caudatus is a new addition to the ungulate fauna of the Indian subcontinent. We documented peoples' dependence on natural resources for grazing and extraction of timber and medicinal plants. The region's mammals are threatened by widespread hunting. The snow leopard Uncia uncia and dhole Cuon alpinus are also persecuted in retaliation for livestock depredation. The tiger Panthera tigris, earlier reported from the lower valleys, is now apparently extinct there, and range reductions over the last two decades are reported for bharal Pseudois nayaur and musk deer Moschus sp.. Based on mammal species richness, extent of high altitude habitat, and levels of anthropogenic disturbance, we identified a potential site for the creation of Arunachal's first high altitude wildlife reserve (815 km2). Community-based efforts that provide incentives for conservation-friendly practices could work in this area, and conservation awareness programmes are required, not just amongst the local communities and schools but for politicians, bureaucrats and the army.
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Chapron, G. (2005). Re-wilding: other projects help carnivores stay wild. Nature, 437, 318.
Abstract: Letter to Nature Editor, in response to: In their plea for bringing Pleistocene wildlife to the New World (“Re-wilding North America” Nature 436, 913–914; 2005), Josh Donlan and colleagues do not discuss successful efforts to ensure long-term survival of large carnivores in Africa and Asia. A few examples are given.
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Chapron, G., & Legendre, S. (2002). Some Insights Into Snow Leopard (Uncia Uncia) Demography By Using Stage Structured Population Models.. Seattle: Islt.
Abstract: Based on the limited data available on snow leopard demography, we developed deterministic and stochastic stage-structured demographic models to study the population dynamics of this large cat. Our results reveal that even small leopard populations can persist provided their demographic parameters remain high, but less favorable scenarios would require larger population sizes. Population growth rate is more sensitive to breeder survivals than to any other parameters. A snow leopard population would start declining if yearly mortality claims more than 1/5 of the population. This study identifies poaching as a major threat to snow leopard survival and stresses the importance of long-term studies to better understand snow leopard population dynamics.
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Aristov A.A. (2001). Genus Irbises Uncia Gray, 1854. Irbis or snow leopard Uncia uncia (Schreber, 1775).
Abstract: An identification table for genus and species of mammals of Russia and adjacent areas is given. The taxonomy, morphology, distribution and life history of carnivores are described. The features of genus Uncia and species Uncia uncia, geographical variability, distribution, biology and value are described in detail.
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Linnell, J., Swenson, J., Landa A., & and Kvam, T. (1998). Methods for monitoring European large carnivores – A worldwide review of relevant experience. NINA Oppdragsmelding, 549, 1–38.
Abstract: Against a background of recovering large carnivore populations in Norway, and many other areas of Europe, it is becoming increasingly important to develop methods to monitor their populations. A variety of parameters can monitored depending on objectives. These parameters include: presence/absense, distribution, population trend indices, minimum counts, statistical estimates of population size, reproductive parameters and health/condition. Three broad categories of monitoring techniques can be recognised each with increasing levels of fieldwork required. The first category includes those techniques that do not require original fieldwork. The second category involves fieldwork, but where individually recognisable carnivores are not available. The third category includes methods where fieldwork has recognisable individuals available. Different mehtods tend to have been used for different species, mainly because of limitations imposed by the different species' ecology. The most precise estimates of population size have been obtained in research projects with relatively small study sites and with the help of radio-telemetry. However, it may be difficult, or impossible, to apply these methods over large monitoring areas. Therefore, in terms of practical management, a combination of minimum counts, supported by an independent index may be more useful than statistical population estimates. All methods should be subject to a careful design process, and power analysis should be conducted to determine the sensitivity of the method to detect changes.
Based on the review of over 200 papers and reports we recommend a package of complementary monitoring methods for brown bear, wolverine, lynx and wolf in Norway. These include the use of observations from the public and reports of predation on livestock to determine broad patterns of distribution, and an index based on hunter observations per hunting day, for all four species. Minimum counts of reproductive units, natal dens, family groups, and packs, should be obtained from snow-tracking for wolverines, lynx and wolves respectively. In addition a track-count index should be obtained for wolverines and lynx. As much data as possible should be obtained of lynx and wolvereines killed in the annual harvest. Brown bears will be difficult to monitor without the use of radio-telemetry, therfore they may require periodic telemetry based, mark-recapture studies. Such a program can easily be constructed within existing central and regional wildlife management structures, but will require extensive involvement from hunters.
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Mishra, C. (1997). Livestock depredation by large carnivores in the Indian trans-Himalaya: Conflict perceptions and conservation prospects. Environmental Conservation, 24(4), 338–343.
Abstract: Livestock depredation by the snow leopard, Uncia uncia, and the wolf, Canis lupus, has resulted in a human-wildlife conflict that hinders the conservation of these globally-threatened species throughout their range. This paper analyses the alleged economic loss due to livestock depredation by these carnivores, and the retaliatory responses of an agro-pastoral community around Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary in the Indian trans-Himalaya. The three villages studied (80 households) attributed a total of 189 livestock deaths (18% of the livestock holding) over a period of 18 months to wild predators, and this would amount to a loss per household equivalent to half the average annual per capita income. The financial compensation received by the villagers from the Government amounted to 3% of the perceived annual loss. Recent intensification of the conflict seems related to a 37.7% increase in livestock holding in the last decade. Villagers have been killing the wolf, though apparently not the snow leopard. A self-financed compensation scheme, and modification of existing livestock pens are suggested as area-specific short-term measures to reduce the conflict. The need to address the problem of increasing livestock holding in the long run is emphasized.
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Filonov K.F. (1996). Large terrestrial mammals in the reserves of Russia: their status and prospects of conservation.
Abstract: The authors make an analysis of fauna of large mammals in 68 nature reserves. There are 10 carnivores and 17 ungulates. Wolf, brown bear, wolverine and lynx appeared to be more widely spread. Dhole, snow leopard, tiger, Himalayan bear have limited distribution and low density. Hey have recorded in a few nature reserves. Among the ungulates wild boar, musk deer, red deer, roe deer, moose, reindeer and aurochs are more widely spread.
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Sheikin A.O. (1996). Fleas of the carnivores of Kazakhstan (preliminary results of the data 1970-1888).
Abstract: The analysis of the data of national collection of Parasitological museum of Kazakh Antiplague Institute on ectoparasites from 12 species of carnivores that can be found in Kazakhstan: caracal, snow leopard, ermine, mountain weasel etc. helped to determine the species of fleas and their hosts specialization. Fleas were found on 57 animals/ 50 species of fleas were found, which can be specified to 23 genera, the total number is 525. The specific ones for the carnivores are 6 species fleas. The very low density of ectoparasites was indicated for caracal and snow leopard.
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Vashetko E.V. (1996). On the fauna of terrestrial vertebrates inhabiting Hissar Nature Reserve (Vol. Issue 1.).
Abstract: The data on the species composition, numbers and distribution of the terrestrial vertebrates over territory Hissar nature reserve are discussed. About 60 species of amphibians, reptiles and mammals have been recorded in the reserve as a result of our own researches and the analyses of communication. There were recorded 5-7 individuals of snow leopard in Kyzylsu site of nature reserve and 15 individuals in Miraki site of nature reserve in 1979-1981.
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Formozov A.N. (1990). Seasonal migrations of mammals due to snow cover. Distribution of the Felidae family species.
Abstract: It describes vertical migrations of ungulates (ibex, wild sheep) in the Semerechie, Altai, Sayans, Tuva, seasonal migrations of steppe ungulates (kulan and saiga), and migrations of predators (lynx, leopard, irbis, tiger, dhole, wolf, glutton) following ungulates during winters with thick snow cover. Shorter local migrations related to uneven snow cover are typical for corsac, fox, and wolf. An analysis of the Felidae family species distribution showed that northern border of the cat family species habitat is connected with borders of 20 30 cm thick snow cover rather than with landscape contours or typical habitats. With the exception of lynx, this can be referred to the large cat family species such as irbis, leopard, and tiger.
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Sokov A.I. (1986). Environmental prerequisites for protection and sustainable use of predatory mammals in Tajikistan (Vol. Vol. 3.).
Abstract: In Tajikistan it is necessary to preserve big predators listed in the Red Book, such as Uncia uncia, Ursus arctos isabellinus, Hyaena hyaena, Felis lynx isabellina, Panthera pardus ciscaucasica. An anthropogenic influence has resulted in the species' habitat shrinkage, deficit of food, disturbance of trophic interactions. It is necessary to restore a tiger population in the Tigrovaya Balka nature reserve, and resolve the issue of protection and sustainable use of commercial predatory species.
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Ismagilov M.I. (1983). Protection of rare mammals in Kazakhstan.
Abstract: The following rare mammals can be found in nature reserves of Kazakhstan: argali, goitered gazelle, kulan, snow leopard, stone marten, Tien Shan brown bear, manul, Turkistan lynx, Menzbier's marmot, and porcupine. The rest of rare mammal species (three insectivorous species, seven rodent, eight predator, and two ungulate species) are outside of protected areas and require special protection measures.
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Kovshar A.F. (1982). Preservation of gene pool of rare and endangered animal species.
Abstract: The rare species are protected in six nature reserves in Kazakhstan, including 9 mammals, 29 birds, and one reptile species. More than 20 rare and endangered species inhabiting Kazakhstan cannot be met within the nature reserves. The point is to establish a network of state nature reserves, particularly in steppe and desert area of the country.
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Zakirov A. (1982). Rare and endangered predatory species in Uzbekistan.
Abstract: There are 20 predatory mammal species in Uzbekistan. Tien Shan brown bear, marbled polecat, lynx, and snow leopard are very rare species, while honey badger, manul and leopard are close to dying-away.
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Cherkasova M.V. (1982). Predators.
Abstract: Among species included in the Red Data Book of the USSR, predators occupy the first place; of them, unconditional leadership belongs the cat family species. Nine of eleven species of the family are referred to as rare and endangered ones. In the past snow leopard (Uncia uncia) inhabited all mountains on the south of the USSR from Tien Shan and Pamir to Transbaikalia. Now it no longer inhabits many of its previous habitats and has become rare, everywhere. Its total population in the USSR is no more than 1000 animals. At the beginning of XX century there were cases that such an amount of snow leopard (i.e. 1,000) was hunted during one year. Until recently, hunting the species was allowed all year round and even encouraged.
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Sosnovskiy I.P. (1981). Backstage of the Zoo.
Abstract: It describes the Moscow Zoo services organization in a popular form; examples from every day work of the technical staff and zoo technical and veterinary service, animals' behaviour outside the cages are given.
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Elkin K.F. (1979). Predatory mammals in the Eastern Kazakhstan.
Abstract: There are 20 predatory mammal species in eastern Kazakhstan, three of which disappeared (tiger, dhole, raccoon), five are endangered (snow leopard, wild cat, manul, marbled polecat, and stone marten). Snow leopard is not met in the South Altai and Tarbagatai each year.
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