Abstract: Monitoring Techniques Forest leopards have never been systematically surveyed in African forests, in spite of their potentially vital ecological role as the sole large mammalian predators in these systems. Because leopards are rarely seen in this habitat, and are difficult to survey using the most common techniques for assessing relative abundances of forest mammals, baseline knowledge of leopard ecology and responses to human disturbance in African forests remain largely unknown. This technical handbook sums up the experience gained during a two-year study of leopards by Philipp Henschel in the Lop‚ Reserve in Gabon, Central Africa, in 2001/2002, supplemented by additional experience from carnivore studies conducted by Justina Ray in southwestern Central African Republic and eastern Congo (Zaire) . The main focus of this effort has been to develop a protocol that can be used by fieldworkers across west and central Africa to estimate leopard densities in various forest types. In developing this manual, Henschel tested several indirect methods to assess leopard numbers in both logged and unlogged forests, with the main effort devoted to testing remote photography survey methods developed for tigers by Karanth (e.g., Karanth 1995, Karanth & Nichols 1998; 2000; 2002), and modifying them for the specific conditions characterizing African forest environments. This handbook summarizes the results of the field testing, and provides recommendations for techniques to assess leopard presence/absence, relative abundance, and densities in African forest sites. We briefly review the suitability of various methods for different study objectives and go into particular detail on remote photography survey methodology, adapting previously developed methods and sampling considerations specifically to the African forest environment. Finally, we briefly discuss how camera trapping may be used as a tool to survey other forest mammals. Developing a survey protocol for African leopards is a necessary first step towards a regional assessment and priority setting exercise targeted at forest leopards, similar to those carried out on large carnivores in Asian and South American forests.

Abstract: The survey described in this report builds upon prior CBT activities undertaken by The Mountain Institute (TMI) in partnership with the Snow Leopard Conservancy (SLC) in Ladakh, supported by a grant from UNESCO (with co-financing from SLC). Under the evolving concept of “Himalayan Homestays”, initially developed and tested in Ladakh, it is proposed that activities be expanded to selected states in India in a strategic and effective way. Himalayan Homestays are part of a larger integrated program to link snow leopard conservation with local livelihoods in Asia.

Abstract: It gives the description of communicative behavioral system (visual, olfactory and vocal elements) for two groups of large Felidae species such as leopard-irbis and lynx-caracal. General and specific behavioral regularities are given.

Abstract: I. SNOW LEOPARD: REVIEW OF CURRENT KNOWLEDGE AND STATUS
This Snow Leopard Survival Strategy (SLSS) was undertaken to provide comprehensive conservation and research guidelines to ensure a range-wide coordinated effort in the fi ght to save the endangered snow leopard and had the following specific goals:  Assess and prioritize threats to snow leopard survival on a geographic basis.
 Defi ne and prioritize conservation, education, and policy measures appropriate to alleviate threats.
 Prioritize subjects for snow leopard research and identify viable or preferred research methods.
 Build a network of concerned scientists and conservationists to facilitate open dialogue and cross-border cooperation.
 Gain consensus on a fundamental Snow Leopard Survival Strategy document that will be made available to the range states to aid conservation planning at national and local levels.
The highly participatory process started with a survey of specialists designed to gather information on perceived threats to snow leopards, appropriate actions to address threats, knowledge gaps, protected area status, policy and law issues, impediments to achieving conservation of snow leopards, and cultural relevance of snow leopards. Drafts of a Strategy were circulated and then the Snow Leopard Survival Summit was convened in Seattle, USA from 21-26 May 2002 and was attended by 58 of the specialists to debate issues and refi ne the Strategy. This SLSS document is the end product of that process. Background on the snow leopard The snow leopard (Uncia uncia) is a member of the Felidae subfamily Pantherinae and on the basis of morphology and behavior it is placed alone in a separate genus. They are found in 12 countries across Central Asia (China, Bhutan, Nepal, India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Mongolia). China contains as much as 60% of the snow leopard's potential habitat. Inaccessible and difficult terrain, along with the secretive nature of this rare cat helps account for the fact that large parts of its range have yet to be surveyed. Between 4,500 and 7,350 snow leopards are thought to occur within a total potential habitat area of 1,835,000 km2. Snow leopards are generally solitary and mating usually occurs between late January and midMarch, and one to five cubs are born after a gestation period of 93 to 110 days, generally in June or July. Snow leopards are closely associated with the alpine and subalpine ecological zones, preferring broken, rocky terrain with vegetation that is dominated by shrubs or grasses. Home range size and shape is not well known. The home range size of five snow leopards in prime habitat in Nepal ranged from 12 to 39 km2, with substantial overlap between individuals and sexes. In Mongolia, where food resources may be scarcer, home ranges of both males and females exceeded 400 km2. Snow leopards are opportunistic predators capable of killing prey up to three times their own weight. They will also take small prey such as marmot or chukar partridge. In general, their most commonly taken prey consists of wild sheep and goats
(including blue sheep, Asian ibex, markhor, and argali). Adult snow leopards kill a large prey animal every 10-15 days, and remained on the kill for an average of 3-4 days, and sometimes up to a week. Predation on livestock can be significant, which often results in retribution killing by herders. Snow Leopards are listed as Endangered on the
IUCN Red List in that they do not meet the standards of Critically Endangered but are projected to decline by 50% or more over next 3 generations due to potential levels of exploitation (trade in pelts/bones and conflict with
livestock), and due to declining: 1) area of occupancy, 2) extent of occurrence, and 3) quality of habitat (prey depletion). They appear in Appendix I of both CITES and the Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of
Wild Animals (CMS). Snow Leopards are protected nationally over most of its range, with the probable exception of Afghanistan. However, in some countries the relevant legislation may not always be very effective, e.g. because penalties are too low to function as deterrent, or they contain some significant loopholes.
II. THREATS AND CONSERVATION ACTIONS
Regional Assessment
This document attempts to list and discuss the threats, conservation actions and information needs pertinent to snow leopard survival. However, these vary substantially across the vast extent of snow leopard range, so no prescription will be universally applicable. We used a regional approach and for purposes of grouping areas where conditions may be similar, we looked at geography, political boundaries, cultural/religious influences, and rural livelihoods. Within that framework we defined four broad regions:
 Himalaya (HIMLY),
 Karakorum/Hindu Kush (KK/HK),
 Commonwealth of Independent States and W. China (CISWC),
 The Northern Range of Russia, Mongolia and N. China (NRANG) SNOW LEOPARD SURVIVAL STRATEGY
Threats to Snow Leopard Survival
A key component of the SLSS process was to identify threats to long-term snow leopard survival across their range. The following list is the result of extensive consultations with stakeholders in Asia and the expert group at the SLSS Summit. Threats are grouped into four broad categories 1) Habitat and Prey related, 2) Direct Killing of Snow Leopards, 3) Policy and Awareness, and 4) Other Issues.
List of Threats
Category 1: Habitat and Prey Related
1.1 Habitat Degradation and Fragmentation
1.2 Reduction of Natural Prey due to Illegal Hunting
1.3 Reduction of Natural Prey due to Legal Hunting
1.4 Reduction of Natural Prey due to Competition with Livestock
1.5 Reduction of Natural Prey due to Disease
1.6 Fencing that Disrupts Natural Migration
Category 2: Direct Killing or Removal of Snow Leopards
2.1 Killing of Snow Leopards in Retribution for Livestock depredation
2.2 Poaching Snow Leopards for Trade in Hides or Bones
2.3 Museum Collection of Live Animals
2.4 Traditional Hunting of Snow Leopards
2.5 Secondary Poisoning and Trapping of Snow Leopards
2.6 Diseases of Snow Leopards
Category 3: Policy and Awareness
3.1 Lack of Appropriate Policy
3.2 Lack of Effective Enforcement
3.3 Lack of Trans-boundary Cooperation
3.4 Lack of Institutional Capacity
3.5 Lack of Awareness among Local People
3.6 Lack of Awareness among Policy Makers
Category 4: Other Issues
4.1 War and Related Military Activities
4.2 Climate Change
4.3 Human Population Growth and Poverty (indirect threat)
Potential Actions to Address Threats
Several methods are identified and elaborated in this document and they include:
 Grazing Management: Promote livestock grazing practices that reduce impacts on native wildlife, in particular snow leopard prey species.
 Wildlife-based Ecotourism: Establishing wildlife based tourism that provides jobs and financial benefits to local people will add economic value to wildlife and create incentives to protect the resource.
 Cottage Industry: Provide income generation opportunities for communities in snow leopard habitat through handicraft manufacture and marketing opportunities with direct and transparent linkages to wildlife conservation via contracts that provides positive incentives for compliance.
 Ungulate Trophy Hunting Programs: Establish or restructure trophy hunting programs that are sustainable, well monitored and provide return to local people as an incentive to protect ungulates. Community co-management of hunting program should be encouraged where ever appropriate.
 Reducing Poaching and Trade in Snow Leopard Parts:
Determine location, nature and extent of snow leopard poaching for trade and bring pressure, both legal and educational, to limit same.
 Reducing Livestock Depredation by Snow Leopards:
Encourage livestock husbandry practices that reduce depredation by snow leopards and other predators.
 Animal Husbandry: Provide training in animal husbandry and veterinary care to improve monetary return at lower stock levels, limit exposure to predation, and reduce impacts on pasture and rangelands.
 Conservation Education and Awareness: Raise awareness of snow leopard conservation issues, concerns, need for action, legal matters, etc, through variety of media among different audiences.
III. RESEARCH AND INFORMATION NEEDS
During the process of listing the threats to snow leopards and the required conservation actions, a set of information needs was also identified. Hence, the list below encompasses the knowledge required to carry-out urgent conservation actions.
Master List of Information Needs
R.1 Snow leopard distribution and “hot spots”
R.2 Snow leopard migration and dispersal routes
R.3 Snow leopard population size
R.4 Snow leopard population trends and factor responsible for changes
R.5 Protected Area coverage extent and representation of habitats (gap analysis)
R.6 Agents of habitat degradation and relative impacts
R.7 Snow leopard prey relationships
R.8 Prey species distribution and “hot spots”
R.9 Prey population baseline and trends
R.10 Dynamics of illegal ungulate hunting (sources, local need, uses, trade, etc.)
R.11 Dynamics of legal ungulate harvest and baseline statistics (sex/age, effort, trophy size, etc.)
R.12 Wild ungulate livestock interactions (competition)
R.13 Ungulate disease type, areas of occurrence, prevalence, virulence, treatment
R.14 Snow leopard poaching levels
R.15 Illegal trade in wildlife parts market demand, sources and routes, value, etc.
R.16 Livestock depredation rates
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R.17 Livestock depredation causes
R.18 Grazing pressure and range conditions
R.19 Snow leopard disease type, areas of occurrence, prevalence, virulence, treatment
R.20 Snow leopard home-range size and habitat use
R.21 Snow leopard social structure and behavior
R.22 Snow leopard population genetics
R.23 Snow leopard food habits
R.24 Snow leopard relationship to other predators
R.25 Economic valuation of snow leopards
R.26 Snow leopard monitoring techniques development/improvement
R.27 Socio-economic profiling of herder communities in snow leopard habitat
R.28 Methods to alleviate impacts of war
R.29 Livestock and human population status and trends
R.30 Analysis of existing policies and laws
R.31 Human attitudes to snow leopards
IV. COUNTRY ACTION PLANNING
The SLSS should be seen as a tool to aid in the development of country-specifi c Action Plans. In general Action
Planning leaders should review the SLSS and then:
 Analyze the problems and choose the proper scale,
 Identify the key stakeholders and integrate them into the planning process at the beginning, (i.e. ensure a broadly participatory process),
 Choose a multi-level approach if the problems and stakeholders are particularly diverse,
 Seek to identify achievable and appropriate actions,
 Build monitoring of results into the Plan.
The Action Planning process need not be done in a vacuum. The Snow Leopard Network (see below), can provide much needed assistance in terms of expertise and advice during the planning process. Collectively, the SLN membership has experience in nearly every area of snow leopard related conservation, research, education, and policy. They can be approached for assistance through the International Snow Leopard Trust, 4649 Sunnyside
Ave. N., Suite 325, Seattle, Washington, 98103, USA, on their website http://www.snowleopard.org/sln/ or via email at <info@snowleopard.org>.
V. TAKING THE SLSS FORWARD
A key outcome of the SLSS Workshop was the creation of the Snow Leopard Network (SLN). The SLN is a partnership of organizations and individuals from government and private sector who work together for the effective conservation of the snow leopard, its prey, and their natural habitat to the benefi t of people and biodiversity.
The initial members of the SLN are the specialist who worked together on the SLSS. Carrying the SLSS forward was the impetus for developing the Network.