Abstract: The loss of livestock to wild predators is an important livelihood concern among Trans-Himalayan pastoralists. Because of the remoteness and inaccessibility of the region, few studies have been carried out to quantify livestock depredation by wild predators. In the present study, we assessed the intensity of livestock depredation by snow leopard Uncia uncia, Tibetan wolf Canis lupus chanku, and Eurasian lynx Lynx l. isabellina in three villages, namely Gya, Rumtse, and Sasoma, within the proposed Gya-Miru Wildlife Sanctuary in Ladakh, India. The three villages reported losses of 295 animals to these carnivores during a period of 2.5 years ending in early 2003, which represents an annual loss rate of 2.9% of their livestock holdings. The Tibetan wolf was the most important predator, accounting for 60% of the total livestock loss because of predation, followed by snow leopard (38%) and lynx (2%). Domestic goat was the major victim (32%), followed by sheep (30%), yak (15%), and horse (13%). Wolves killed horses significantly more and goats less than would be expected from their relative abundance. Snow leopards also killed horses significantly more than expected, whereas they killed other livestock types in proportion to their abundance. The three villages combined incurred an estimated annual monetary loss of approximately $USD 12,120 amounting to approximately $USD 190/household/y. This relatively high total annual loss occurred primarily because of depredation of the most valuable livestock types such as yak and horse. Conservation actions should initially attempt to target decrease of predation on these large and valuable livestock species.

Abstract: Mountain ungulates perform a key role in maintaining the balance of ecosystems as they are the primary consumers of vegetation and prey for large predators. The mountain ranges of northern Pakistan are home to six species of mountain ungulates, and the Himalayan ibex (Capra sibirica), hereafter ibex, is the most abundant among them. This study was conducted in three administrative regions of northern Pakistan, viz. Gilgit-Baltistan (GB), Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK), and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), to generate a range-wide density pattern map of ibex. A double-observer survey was conducted in 25 study sites during 2018–2021 across the ibex distribution range, covering an area of about 35,307 km2, by walking transects totaling 1647 km. Within the ibex range where the survey was not conducted due to financial and logistical constraints, we obtained species population information from local wildlife departments’ most recent annual survey data. The aim was to generate a density map for the entire ibex range. Using the BBRe-capture package in program R, we estimated an ibex population of 7639 (95 % CI) with a mean density of 0.21/km2 in the surveyed area. Combining with the secondary data from un-surveyed areas, the total population estimate for the country came to 10,242 ibex. The largest population densities were observed in four valleys (Shimshal, Gulkin-Hussaini, Khyber, and Khunjerab) of the Karakoram-Pamir range, followed by the Hindu Kush range (Chitral Wildlife Division [WD]). The central and eastern parts of the Karakoram range had moderate to low densities, while the Himalayan range (e.g., Astore Valley) supported a small population. The mean herd size was 15 individuals (range: 5–41), and the average detection probability of observers A and B was 0.69 and 0.48, respectively. The average male and young ratios per 100 females were estimated to be 75 and 81, respectively. The range-wide density map developed during the study provided an evidence for the impact of trophy hunting programs and an objective tool for range-wide conservation planning of the species.

Abstract: Between 1998 and 2001 I carried out surveys in four areas in the Baltistan district of the Northern Areas of Pakistan to estimate the population of the snow leopard and to examine the threats to its future conservation. I estimate that a total of 36-50 snow leopards are present in the areas surveyed. Based on the availability of suitable snow leopard habitat and of its prey species, I estimate that 90-120 snow leopards are potentially present in Baltistan and 300-420 throughout its range within Pakistan's borders. Although this estimate is higher than extrapolations based on earlier surveys, the long-term future of the snow leopard is under threat. This is mainly due to retaliatory killings by farmers, and poaching for pelts and other body parts. Species-focused conservation policies, particularly those targeting ungulates for the promotion of trophy hunting, may constitute an additional threat to snow leopard conservation in the region. However, all forms of threats to the snow leopard in Baltistan appear to emanate from the relatively poor economic conditions of the local people.

Abstract: Large carnivores play key roles in their ecosystems, but their protection is a major challenge in biodiversity conservation due to conflicts with human interests. The snow leopard (Panthera uncia) is the top predator of Asian high-altitude landscapes and faces various threats including wild prey depletion and illegal killings as a consequence of livestock depredation. As the interactions between snow leopards, wild prey, and livestock are still insufficiently understood, we studied the effects of 1) wild prey (blue sheep Pseudois nayaur and Himalayan marmots Marmota himalayana) and domestic prey on snow leopard relative abundance, and of 2) these ecological parameters and intervention applications on livestock depredation by snow leopards. In the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal, we monitored wildlife populations and livestock along transects (490.8 km) in 82 grid cells (4 ×4 km) in 2019 and 2021 and conducted questionnaire surveys to determine livestock depredation between 2018 and 2021 (n = 479 households). We applied generalized linear models (GLMs) and sample comparison testing to examine the effects of prey densities and other environmental and anthropogenic predictors on snow leopard relative abundance and livestock depredation. Blue sheep density strongly positively affected snow leopard relative abundance, which also increased with terrain ruggedness and decreased with increasing densities of livestock and the human population. The size of livestock holdings shaped depredation events of large livestock (yak, cattle and horse), whereas depredation events of sheep and goats, which accounted for most (68.6%) depredated animals, decreased with increasing human population density and marmot presence. The strong impact of blue sheep on snow leopard relative abundance supports demands for integrating this ungulate into conservation and management plans, including wild prey recovery and translocation. The rather weak evidence for effects of blue sheep on depredation events suggests that conflicts over livestock depredation by snow leopards would neither be inflicted nor solved by increasing wild prey abundance. This demonstrates the need to improve intervention strategies in the Annapurna region, such as predator-proofing corrals and optimizing daytime herding practices. We suggest further exploring the effects of marmots and other secondary prey on livestock depredation rates, and testing the suitability of additional interventions, e.g., dogs and deterrents, as conflict mitigation tools. Our results will support wildlife managers in setting conservation priorities to promote the long-term co-existence of local people and snow leopards.