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Chaudhuri, S., Mukherjee, S. K., Chatterjee, A., & Ganguli, J. L. (1992). Isolation of P multocida F-3, 4 from a stillborn snow leopard. Vet Rec, 130(2), 36.
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Kanderian, N., Lawson, D., Zahler, P. (2011). Current status of wildlife and conservation in Afghanistan. International Journal of Environmental Studies, 68(3), 281–298.
Abstract: Afghanistan’s position in latitude, geography and at the intersection of three biogeographic realms has resulted in a surprising biodiversity. Its wildlife includes species such as the snow leopard, Asiatic black bear, Marco Polo sheep, markhor and greater flamingo. Principal threats include high levels of deforestation, land encroachment and hunting for food and trade. Continuing security issues have also made it difficult to monitor species abundance and population trends. Over the last decade, however, survey efforts have provided the first collection of species and habitat data since the late 1970s. Initial findings are enabling the Government and rural communities to begin implementing important conservation measures. This process has included policy development and protected area planning, promoting alternative livelihoods and responsible community management, and continuing research into the status of biodiversity in the field.
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Singh, R., Krausman, P. R., Pandey, P., Maheshwari, A., Rawal,
R. S., Sharma, S., Shekhar, S. (2020). Predicting Habitat Suitability of Snow Leopards in the Western
Himalayan Mountains, India. Biology bulletin, 47(6), 655–664.
Abstract: The population of snow leopard (Panthera uncia) is declining
across their range, due to poaching, habitat fragmentation, retaliatory
killing, and a decrease of wild prey species. Obtaining information on
rare and cryptic predators living in remote and rugged terrain is
important for making conservation and management strategies. We used the
Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) ecological niche modeling framework to predict
the potential habitat of snow leopards across the western Himalayan
region, India. The model was developed using 34 spatial species
occurrence points in the western Himalaya, and 26 parameters including,
prey species distribution, temperature, precipitation, land use and land
cover (LULC), slope, aspect, terrain ruggedness and altitude. Thirteen
variables contributed 98.6% towards predicting the distribution of snow
leopards. The area under the curve (AUC) score was high (0.994) for the
training data from our model, which indicates pre- dictive ability of
the model. The model predicted that there was 42432 km2 of potential
habitat for snow leop- ards in the western Himalaya region. Protected
status was available for 11247 km2 (26.5%), but the other 31185 km2
(73.5%) of potential habitat did not have any protected status. Thus,
our approach is useful for predicting the distribution and suitable
habitats and can focus field surveys in selected areas to save
resources, increase survey success, and improve conservation efforts for
snow leopards.
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Pollock, R. V., & Carmichael, L. E. (1983). Use of modified live feline panleukopenia virus vaccine to immunize dogs against canine parvovirus. Am J Vet Res, 44(2), 169–175.
Abstract: Modified live feline panleukopenia virus (FPLV) vaccine protected dogs against canine parvovirus (CPV) infection. However, unlike the long- lived (greater than or equal to 20-month) immunity engendered by CPV infection, the response of dogs to living FPLV was variable. Doses of FPLV (snow leopard strain) in excess of 10(5.7) TCID50 were necessary for uniform immunization; smaller inocula resulted in decreased success rates. The duration of immunity, as measured by the persistence of hemagglutination-inhibiting antibody, was related to the magnitude of the initial response to vaccination; dogs with vigorous initial responses resisted oronasal CPV challenge exposure 6 months after vaccination, and hemagglutination-inhibiting antibodies persisted in such dogs for greater than 1 year. Limited replication of FPLV in dogs was demonstrated, but unlike CPV, the feline virus did not spread to contact dogs or cats. Adverse reactions were not associated with living FPLV vaccination, and FPLV did not interfere with simultaneous response to attenuated canine distemper virus.
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Mishra, C., Madhusudan, M. D., & Datta, A. (2006). Mammals of the high altitudes of western Arunachal Pradesh, eastern Himalaya: an assessment of threats and conservation needs (Vol. 40).
Abstract: The high altitudes of Arunachal Pradesh,India, located in the Eastern Himalaya biodiversity hotspot, remain zoologically unexplored and unprotected. We report results of recent mammal surveys in the high altitude habitats of western Arunachal Pradesh. A total of 35 mammal species (including 12 carnivores, 10 ungulates and 5 primates) were recorded, of which 13 are categorized as Endangered or Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. One species of primate, the Arunachal macaque Macaca munzala, is new to science and the Chinese goral Nemorhaedus caudatus is a new addition to the ungulate fauna of the Indian subcontinent. We documented peoples' dependence on natural resources for grazing and extraction of timber and medicinal plants. The region's mammals are threatened by widespread hunting. The snow leopard Uncia uncia and dhole Cuon alpinus are also persecuted in retaliation for livestock depredation. The tiger Panthera tigris, earlier reported from the lower valleys, is now apparently extinct there, and range reductions over the last two decades are reported for bharal Pseudois nayaur and musk deer Moschus sp.. Based on mammal species richness, extent of high altitude habitat, and levels of anthropogenic disturbance, we identified a potential site for the creation of Arunachal's first high altitude wildlife reserve (815 km2). Community-based efforts that provide incentives for conservation-friendly practices could work in this area, and conservation awareness programmes are required, not just amongst the local communities and schools but for politicians, bureaucrats and the army.
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Thorel, M. F., Karoui, C., Varnerot, A., Fleury, C., & Vincent, V. (1998). Isolation of Mycobacterium bovis from baboons, leopards and a sea-lion. Vet Res, 29(2), 207–212.
Abstract: This study reports on two series of cases of Mycobacterium bovis infection in zoo animals. The first was in a captive population of baboons (Papio hamadryas) and the second in a mixed group of wild mammals, including four leopards (Panthera uncia and Panthera pardus) and a sea-lion (Otaria byrona). The isolation and identification of strains of M. bovis confirmed the presence of M. bovis infections in both zoos. The epidemiological study using genetic markers such as the IS6110-based DNA fingerprinting system made it possible to differentiate between M. bovis strains. The M. bovis strains isolated from baboons were shown to contain a single IS6110 copy, as usually do cattle isolates, whereas the M. bovis strains isolated from the other exotic animals presented multiple copies. This finding suggests that the origin of the contamination for the baboons in zoo A could be related to cattle. The origin of the contamination for the leopards and sea-lion in zoo B is more difficult to determine. In conclusion, the authors suggest some recommendations for avoiding outbreaks of tuberculosis infections in zoos.
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Meklenburtsev R.N. (1949). About ecology of ibex in Pamir (Vol. Vol. 28, edition 5.).
Abstract: Ibex is distributed all over the Pamir mountains, inhabiting rocks and canyons and ascending up to 5,500 m above sea level. In summer, ibex mostly feeds upon sedge and cereals, in winter wormwood. It keeps in herds containing 15 to 30 animals. The coupling period is December; kids being born at the beginning of June. The most dangerous predators are snow leopard and wolf. Ibex is a main commercial game species.
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Clyde, V. L., Ramsay, E. C., & Bemis, D. A. (1997). Fecal shedding of Salmonella in exotic felids. J.Zoo Wildl.Med, 28(2), 148–152.
Abstract: The authors discuss the occurrence of salmonellosis in collections of exotic felids. Data suggest that zoo employees having contact with cat feces or raw diets have a high rate of occupational exposure to Salmonella and should exercise appropriate hygienic precautions. pcp
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Kuznetsov B.A. (1950). The mountainous province in Central Asia (Vol. Edition 20th. (XXXV). New series. Zoological secti).
Abstract: The landscape and biologic diversity of Central Asia's mountains are described. Different types of fauna complexes are segregated. Snow leopard, dhole, and ibex are referred to Central Asia's highland species.
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Roth, T. L., Swanson, W. F., Wildt, D. E., Collins, D., Burton, M., & Garell, D. M. (1996). Snow leopard (Panthera uncia) spermatozoa are sensitive to alkaline pH, but motility in vitro is not influenced by protein or energy supplements (Vol. 17).
Abstract: To better understand the biology of snow leopard spermatozoa and to facilitate developing assisted reproduction, a series of studies was conducted to: 1) identify the component(s) of complex culture media responsible for the detrimental effect on sperm survival in vitro, 2) optimize medium for supporting sperm viability, and 3) evaluate sperm capacitation in vitro. Constituents of complex media were added systematically to phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) to isolate the factor(s) influencing snow leopard sperm motility in vitro. Sperm capacitation was also assessed following incubation in PBS with bovine serum albumin (BSA), fetal calf serum (FCS), or heparin. For maintaining sperm motility, there was no benefit (P ? 0.05) to supplementing PBS with low (5%) or high (20%) concentrations of snow leopard serum (SLS) versus FCS or BSA. Likewise, adding supplemental energy substrates (pyruvate, glucose, lactate, or glutamine) did not enhance or hinder (P ? 0.05) sperm motility. However, motility rapidly decreased (P < 0.05) with the addition of NaHCO3 to PBS or Ham's F10 nutrient mixture. Surprisingly, Ham's F10 with no buffering component or with both NaHCO3 and N-Z-hydroxyethylpiperazine-N'-2- ethanesulfonic acid (HEPES) maintained sperm motility at levels similar (P ? 0.05) to PBS. Although sperm motility in all treatments decreased with time, there was a strong inverse relationship (P < 0.01; r = 0.90) between motility and sample pH at 6 hours. Spermatozoa incubated in PBS containing FCS, BSA, or heparin did not undergo the acrosome reaction when exposed to calcium ionophore. In summary, alkaline pH has a profound detrimental effect on snow leopard sperm motility, and capacitation does not occur under conditions that normally promote this event in other felid species. These results clearly demonstrate a high degree of interspecific variation among felids in fundamental sperm function, and they provide evidence for the necessity of basic research when developing assisted reproduction in little-studied nondomestic species.
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Baral N., Stern, M., & Heinen, J. T. (2007). Integrated conservation and development project life cycles in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal: Is development overpowering conservation? Biodiversity Conservation, 16(10), 2903–2917.
Abstract: The merits of integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs), which aim to provide development incentives to citizens in return for conservation behaviors, have long been debated in the literature. Some of the most common critiques suggest that conservation activities tend to be strongly overpowered by development activities. We studied this assertion through participant observation and archival analysis of five Conservation Area Management Committees (CAMCs) in the Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA), Nepal. Committee activities were categorized as conservation activities (policy development and conservation implementation), development activities (infrastructure, health care, education, economic development, and sanitation), or activities related to institutional strengthening (administrative development and capacity building activities). Greater longevity of each ICDP was associated with greater conservation activity in relation to development activities. Project life cycles progressed from a focus on development activities in their early stages, through a transitional period of institutional strengthening, and toward a longer-term focus that roughly balanced conservation and development activities. Results suggest that the ICDP concept, as practiced in ACA, has been successful at building capacity for and interest in conservation amongst local communities. However, success has come over a period of nearly a decade, suggesting that prior conclusions about ICDP failures may have been based on unrealistic expectations of the time needed to influence behavioral changes in target populations.
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Kitchener, S. L., Meritt, & Rosenthal, M. (1975). Observations on the breeding and husbandry of snow leopards, Panthera uncia. Int.Zoo Yearbook, 15, 212–217.
Abstract: Describes adult care and breeding biology, and the care, growth, and mortality factors of young snow leopards in a successful breeding program in the Lincon Park Zoo, Chicago, Illinois.
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Koshkarev E. (1998). Critical Ranges as Centres of Biodiversity (Vol. N 14).
Abstract: A high percentage of rare species in Central Asia experience limited conditions for distribution. Geographic centers with higher species diversity are generally constrained in terms of territory: they are formed when ranges overlap. But in Central Asia and along its borders with Russia, centers of biodiversity overlap at the very marginal edges of ranges. Central Asian species cross into Russian territory, where desert and steppe are replaced by thick forest. Here the northern borders of their ranges are sharply fragmented and isolated. Typical examples for Central Asia are the ranges of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), Asian leopard (Panthera pardus caucasica), striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena), Bukhara deer (Census elaphus bactrianus), markhor (Capra falconeri), blue sheep (Pseudois nayauf) and argali (Ovis ammon). In Russia are the Altai subspecies of argali, the Siberian argali (O.a.ammon), the mountain goat (Capra sibirica), Mongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa), snow leopard (Uncia uncia), Pallas' cat (Felis manul), dhole (Cuon alpinus), grey marmot (Marmota baibacina), Mongolian marmot (M. sibirica) and tolai hare (Lepus tolai). Where the numbers o f individuals has fallen to extreme lows, the most effective mechanism for species survival may be supporting the integrity of ranges, in order to preserve population exchanges between neighboring groups. The geographic location of reserves and other protected territories is vitally important for the survival of Central Asian species, given the acute fragmentation of their ranges. These reserves should include significant, viable centers of population the key places. Wherever the creation of permanent protected territories is impossible, a new tactic must be found, such as introducing temporary limitations on the use of land for agriculture and hunting. But all protected territories, whether temporary or permanent, should be connected, forming a core and periphery. The marginal range areas must not be forgotten, if total protection of endangered populations is to be accomplished.
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Mishra, C., & Rawat, G. S. (1998). Livestock grazing and Biodiversity Conservation: Comments on Saberwal. Conservation Biology, 12, 25–32.
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Islam, M., Sahana, M., Areendran, G., Jamir, C., Raj, K., Sajjad, H. (2023). Prediction of potential habitat suitability of snow leopard (Panthera uncia) and blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) and niche overlap in the parts of western Himalayan region. Geo: Geography and Environment, 10(e00121), 1–15.
Abstract: The snow leopard (Panthera uncia) and blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) are the inhabitants of remote areas at higher altitudes with extreme geographic and climatic conditions. The habitats of these least-studied species are crucial for sustaining the Himalayan ecosystem. We employed the Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) species distribution model to predict the potential habitat suitability of snow leopards and blue sheep and extracted common overlapped niches. For this, we utilised presence location, bio-climatic and environmental variables, and correlation analysis was applied to reduce the negative impact of multicollinearity. A total of 134 presence locations of snow leopards and 64 for blue sheep were selected from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). The annual mean temperature (Bio1) was found to be the most useful and highly influential factor to predict the potential habitat suitability of snow leopards. Annual mean temperature, annual precipitation and isothermality were the major influencing factors for blue sheep habitat suitability. Highly influential bio-climatic, topographic and environmental variables were integrated to construct the model for predicting habitat suitability. The area under the curve (AUC) values for snow leopard (0.87) and blue sheep (0.82) showed that the models are under good representation. Of the total area investigated, 47% was suitable for the blue sheep and 38% for the snow leopards. Spatial habitat assessment revealed that nearly 11% area from the predicted suitable habitat class of both species was spatially matched (overlapped), 48.6% area was unsuitable under niche overlap and 40.5% area was spatially mismatched niche. The presence of snow leopards and blue sheep in some highly suitable areas was not observed, yet such areas have the potential to sustain these elusive species. The other geographical regions interested in exploring habitat suitability may find the methodological framework adopted in this study useful for formulating an effective conservation policy and management strategy.
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Saberwal, V. K. (1996). Pastoral Politics:gaddi grazing, degradation and biodiversity conservation in Himachal Pradesh, India. Conservation Biology, 10, 741–749.
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Jackson, R., & Ahlborn, G. (1990). The role of protected areas in Nepal in maintaining viable populations of snow leopards. Int.Ped.Book of Snow Leopards, 6, 51–69.
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The Snow Leopard Conservancy. (2002). A Learning Tour of the CBN (Corbett, Nainital and Binsar) Eco-tourism Initiative Sites by Villagers from Hemis National Park and the Surrounding Area (18-28th November 2002) (R. Wangchuk, & J. Dadul, Eds.) (Vol. SLC Field Document Series No 5). Leh, Ladakh, India.
Abstract: Ladakh lies between the Great Himalayas and the formidable Karakoram mountains.
Its unique landscape and rich cultural heritage have been a great attraction to tourists all over
the world. Apart from its uniqueness it has a rich Trans-Himalayan bio-diversity and is home
to the rare and elusive snow leopard. It opened to tourism in 1974 with a handful of tourists
and has gone up to the present number of about 18,000 visitors annually. Ecotourism started in Ladakh in mid 80s in the form of conservation of traditional
architecture when local communities realized the importance of their rich culture and
traditions being valued by the visiting tourists. However, while tourism became a major
source of income to people in Leh, most of the benefits stayed with outside (Delhi) based
travel agents thus leaving out the rural masses. During the last three years Snow Leopard Conservancy and The Mountain Institute have been
initiating ecotourism activities with local communities in the Hemis National Park as an
alternate livelihood and an indirect way to compensate losses of livestock from predatory
animals. However, local people while venturing into such new initiatives have tended to be
like blind men that are being led by NGO's so that they do not stumble along their paths.
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Ognev S.I. (1935). Uncia uncia Sch., 1778. Irbis or snow leopard (Vol. Vol.3.).
Abstract: It describes identification signs and taxonomy of genus Uncia Gray and the only representative of genus Uncia uncia Sch., 1778, distribution and some features of the species' biology. A habitat of snow leopard includes the mountains of Central Asia from Kopet-Dag and northern Iran to the east along the mountain systems of Pamir, Turkestan, Gilgit, Tibet, Himalayas before the country Kam. On the north, snow leopard is met in Tarbagatai, Altai, Sayans, and further eastward to the Yablonoviy and Stanovoy ridges reaching the confluence of the Shilka and Argun rivers.
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Smith, A. T., & Foggin, M. J. (1998). The Plateau Pika (Ochotona curzoniae) is a Keystone Species for Biodiversity on the Tibetan Plateau. Animal Conservation, 2, 235–240.
Abstract: It is necessary to look at the big picture when managing biological resources on the QinghaiXizang (Tibetan) plateau. Plateau pikas (Ochotona curzoniae) are poisoned widely across the plateau. Putative reasons for these control measures are that pika populations may reach high densities and correspondingly reduce forage for domestic livestock (yak, sheep, horses), and because they may be responsible for habitat degradation. In contrast, we highlight the important role the plateau pika plays as a keystone species in the Tibetan plateau ecosystem. The plateau pika is a keystone species because it: (i) makes burrows that are the primary homes to a wide variety of small birds and lizards; (ii) creates microhabitat disturbance that results in an increase in plant species richness; (iii) serves as the principal prey for nearly all of the plateau's predator species; (iv) contributes positively to ecosystem-level dynamics. The plateau pika should be managed in concert with other uses of the land to ensure preservation of China's native biodiversity, as well as long-term sustainable use of the pastureland by domestic livestock.
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Kashkarov D.N. (1923). Living conditions and living in various parts of the mountainous Turkestan. Central Asian snow leopard, irbis (Vol. Issue 2. The animals of mountainous Turkistan.).
Abstract: It describes fauna of the mountainous Turkestan. Irbis is met in Tien Shan, Pamir, Bukhara and Kopet-Dag. Apart from Turkistan, it lives in the Altai, Tibet and on northern slopes of the Himalayas. In Kopet-Dag, this species is met with another panther Caucasian leopard. It preys on ibex, wild sheep, roe deer, keklik (partridge), snow-cock and porcupine. It also attacks small livestock. Normally this species would never attack the man though hunters mentioned some cases that evidence otherwise.
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Gromov I.M. (1963). Felis (Uncia) uncia Schreber (1776) leopard or irbis (Vol. Part.2.).
Abstract: An identification table for genus and species of mammals of USSR is given. The taxonomy, morphology, distribution and life history are described. The features of snow leopard Felis (Uncia) uncia, distribution, biology and practical value are described.
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Sludsky A.A. (1982). Genus Snow leopard Uncia Gray, 1854. Snow leopard Uncia uncia Schreber, 1775 (Vol. Vol. III, Part 2.).
Abstract: Snow leopard is rare and extinctive species that have scientific and aesthetic significance. The features of genus Uncia and species Uncia uncia are described. Also distribution, habitat, way of life, reproduction biology, behavioural patterns, migration routes, infections and parasites, enemies and competitors, number and number fluctuation, practical value of snow leopard in the Kazakhstan are given.
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Vashetko E.V. (1996). On the fauna of terrestrial vertebrates inhabiting Hissar Nature Reserve (Vol. Issue 1.).
Abstract: The data on the species composition, numbers and distribution of the terrestrial vertebrates over territory Hissar nature reserve are discussed. About 60 species of amphibians, reptiles and mammals have been recorded in the reserve as a result of our own researches and the analyses of communication. There were recorded 5-7 individuals of snow leopard in Kyzylsu site of nature reserve and 15 individuals in Miraki site of nature reserve in 1979-1981.
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Grachev Yu.A. (1991). Snow leopard Uncia uncia Sch. 1775 (Vol. Vol. 1. Animals.).
Abstract: Snow leopard is a rare species with shrinking habitat and decreasing population (category III). It is distributed in Tien Shan (the ridges of Karjantau, Ugam, Talas, Kyrgyz, Zailiyskiy, Kunghey, Terskey, Ketmen), Djungar Alatau, Tarbagatai, Saur, and South Altai. This species has disappeared in the Syrdarya Karatau and the mountains of North Tien Shan. Its total number in Kazakhstan is estimated to be 180-200 animals. The threats are reduction of mountain ungulates and poaching. Snow leopard is protected in the Aksu-Djabagly, Alma-Ata, and Markakol nature reserves and the Alma-Ata, Lepsin, and Tokhta sanctuaries. The Djungar nature reserve needs to be established.
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