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Ale S. (2005). Have snow leopards made a comeback to the Everest region of Nepal?.
Abstract: In the 1960s, the endangered snow leopard was locally extirpated from the Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) region of Nepal. In this Sherpa-inhabited high Himalaya, the flourishing tourism since the ascent of Mt Everest in 1953, has caused both prosperity and adverse impacts, the concern that catalyzed the establishment of Mt. Everest National Park in the region in 1976. In the late 1980s, there were reports that some transient snow leopards may have visited the area from adjoining Tibet, but no biological surveys exist to confirm the status of the cats and their prey. Have snow leopards finally returned to the top of the world? Exploring this question was the main purpose of this research project. We systematically walked altogether 24 sign transects covering over 13 km in length in three valleys, i.e. Namche, Phortse and Gokyo, of the park, and counted several snow leopard signs. The results indicated that snow leopards have made a comeback in the park in response to decades of protective measures, the virtual cessation of hunting and the recovery of the Himalayan tahr which is snow leopard's prey. The average sign density (4.2 signs/km and 2.5 sign sites/km) was comparable to that reported from other parts of the cats' range in the Himalaya. On this basis, we estimated the cat density in the Everest region between 1 to 3 cats per 100 sq km, a figure that was supported by different sets of pugmarks and actual sightings of snow leopards in the 60 km2 sample survey area. In the study area, tahr population had a low reproductive rate (e.g. kids-to-females ratio, 0.1, in Namche). Since predators can influence the size and the structure of prey species populations through mortality and through non-lethal effects or predation risk, snow leopards could have been the cause of the population dynamics of tahr in Sagarmtha, but this study could not confirm this speculation for which further probing may be required.
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Khatiwada, J. R., Chalise, M. K., & Kyes, R. (2007). Survey of Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia) and Blue Sheep (Pseudois nayaur) populations in the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area (KCA), Nepal. Final report.
Abstract: This study was carried out in the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area (KCA), Eastern Nepal from Feb – Nov 2007. We used the Snow Leopard Information Management System, SLIMS (second order survey technique) to determine the relative abundance of snow leopard in the upper part of KCA. Altogether, 36 transects (total length of 15.21 km) were laid down in the major three blocks of KCA. 104 Signs (77 scrapes, 20 feces, 2 Scent mark, 3 Pugmarks and 2 hairs) were recorded. Fixed-point count method was applied for blue sheep from appropriate vantage points. We counted total individual in each herd using 8x42 binocular and 15-60x spotting scope. A total of 43 herds and 1102 individuals were observed in the area. The standard SLIMS questionnaire was conducted to find out relevant information on livestock depredation patterns. Out of 35 households surveyed in KCA, 48% of herders lost livestock due to snow leopards. A total of 21 animals were reportedly lost due to snow leopards from August to September 2007.
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Khan, A. (2004). Snow Leopard Occurrence in Mankial Valley, Swat: Final report.
Abstract: Mankial is a sub-valley of the Swat Kohistan. Temperate ecosystem of the valley is intact to a greater extent, which provides habitat to a variety of species of plants, animals and birds. Snow leopard is reported from the valley. To confirm its occurrence, the HUJRA (Holistic Understanding for Justified Research and Action), conducted the study titled “Snow Leopard Survey in Mankial Valley, district Swat, NWFP”. The author provided technical support, while ISLT (The International Snow Leopard Trust) funded the project under its small grants program. The World Wide Fund for Nature-Pakistan (WWF-Pakistan) and the Mankial Community Organization (MCO) facilitated surveys under the project. Surveys revealed that Snow leopard visits parts of the Mankial valley in winter months. Information from the local community shows that Snow leopard remains in the Serai (an off-shoot of the Mankial Valley) from early winter to early spring. Intensive surveys of the prime snow leopard winter habitat in the valley found several snow leopard signs including pugmarks, feces, and scrapes. The study also found occurrence of prey species through indirect evidence though. However, information from the local community confirmed that in the recent past there was a good population of markhor in the valley, which is now reduced to less than 50, mostly due to hunting and habitat disturbance. Hunting is part of the local culture and lifestyle. During winter months hunting pressure is low, as most of the local community migrates to warmer plain areas than Mankial Valley. However, those who live in the area lop oak branches for feeding their livestock and cut trees for burning, in addition to hunting prey species of snow leopard. This has resulted in stunted oak vegetation in most of the lower reaches of the valley and decline of the markhor population.
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Jiang, Z. (2005). Snow leopards in the Dulan International Hunting Ground, Qinghai, China.
Abstract: From March to May, 2006œªwe conducted extensive snow leopard surveys in the Burhanbuda Mountain Kunlun Mountains, Qinghai Province, China. 32 linear transect of 5~15 km each, which running through each vegetation type, were surveyed within the study area. A total of 72 traces of snow leopard were found along 4 transects (12.5% of total transects). The traces included pug marks or footprints, scrapes and urine marks. We estimated the average density of wild ungulates in the region was 2.88ñ0.35 individuals km-2(n=29). We emplaced 16 auto2 trigger cameras in different environments and eight photos of snow leopard were shot by four cameras and the capture rate of snow leopard was 71.4%. The minimum snow leopard population size in the Burhanbuda Mountain was two, because two snow leopards were phototrapped by different cameras at almost same time. Simultaneously, the cameras also shot 63 photos of other wild animals, including five photos are unidentified wild animals, and 20 photos of livestock. We evaluated the human attitudes towards snow leopard by interviewing with 27 Tibetan householders of 30 householders live in the study area. We propose to establish a nature reserve for protecting and managing snow leopards in the region. Snow leopard (Uncia uncia) is considered as a unique species because it lives above the snow line, it is endemic to alpines in Central Asia, inhabiting in 12 countries across Central Asia (Fox, 1992). Snow leopard ranges in alpine areas in Qinghai, Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, Tibet, Gansu and Sichuan in western China (Liao, 1985, 1986; Zhou, 1987; Ma et al., 2002; Jiang & Xu, 2006). The total population and habitat of snow leopards in China are estimated to be 2,000~2,500 individuals and 1,824,316 km2, only 5% of which is under the protection of nature reserves. The cat's current range is fragmented (Zou & Zheng, 2003). Due to strong human persecutions, populations of snow leopards decreased significantly since the end of the 20th century. Thus, the
snow leopards are under the protection of international and domestic laws. From March to May, 2006, we conducted two field surveys in Zhiyu Village, Dulan County in Burhanbuda Mountain, Kunlun Mountains, China to determine the population, distribution and survival status of snow leopards in the area. The aim of the study was to provide ecologic data for snow leopard conservation.
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Jackson, R., Roe, J., Wangchuk, R., & Hunter, D. (2005). Surveying Snow Leopard Populations with Emphasis on Camera Trapping: A Handbook. Sonoma, California: The Snow Leopard Conservancy.
Abstract: This handbook provides an introduction to snow leopard population survey techniques, followed by a detailed account of camera trapping methods.During the 2002 through 2004 winter field seasons, the Snow Leopard Conservancy experimented with infrared camera trapping techniques to define a methodology suitable for the high altitude environment.
In 2001 and 2002, much of our time was spent familiarizing ourselves with various infrared camera traps, their operation and setup, and comparing the effectiveness of different models and sensor types. We placed infrared camera traps along frequently used travel corridors at or near scent-sprayed rocks (rock scents) and scrape sites within 16 km2 sampling cells between January and March in 2003 and 2004. A total of 66 and 49 captures of snow leopards were tallied during 2003 and 2004, resulting in an overall capture success of 8.91 and 5.63 individuals per 100 trap-nights, respectively. Capture probabilities ranged from 0.33 to 0.46. Density estimates ranged from 8.49 ± 0.22 individuals per 100 km2 in 2003 to 4.45 ± 0.16 in 2004, with the disparity between years largely attributed to different trapping densities. Snow leopard abundance estimates were calculated using the computer program CAPTURE.
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Jackson, R., Roe, J., Wangchuk, R., & Hunter, D. (2005). Surveying Snow Leopard Populations with Emphasis on Camera Trapping: A Handbook. Sonoma, California: The Snow Leopard Conservancy.
Abstract: This handbook provides an introduction to snow leopard population survey techniques, followed by a detailed account of camera trapping methods.During the 2002 through 2004 winter field seasons, the Snow Leopard Conservancy experimented with infrared camera trapping techniques to define a methodology suitable for the high altitude environment.
In 2001 and 2002, much of our time was spent familiarizing ourselves with various infrared camera traps, their operation and setup, and comparing the effectiveness of different models and sensor types. We placed infrared camera traps along frequently used travel corridors at or near scent-sprayed rocks (rock scents) and scrape sites within 16 km2 sampling cells between January and March in 2003 and 2004. A total of 66 and 49 captures of snow leopards were tallied during 2003 and 2004, resulting in an overall capture success of 8.91 and 5.63 individuals per 100 trap-nights, respectively. Capture probabilities ranged from 0.33 to 0.46. Density estimates ranged from 8.49 ± 0.22 individuals per 100 km2 in 2003 to 4.45 ± 0.16 in 2004, with the disparity between years largely attributed to different trapping densities. Snow leopard abundance estimates were calculated using the computer program CAPTURE.
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Jackson, R. (2002). Snow Leopard Status, Distribution, and Protected Areas Coverage.. Islt: Islt.
Abstract: This document reports on the status, distribution and protected areas coverage for snow leopard across its range in Central Asia. It is intended to aid in updating the existing knowledge base of snow leopard status and distribution during the Snow Leopard Survival Strategy (SLSS) Workshop organized by the International Snow Leopard Trust (ISLT), and to be held in Seattle on May 21-25, 2002. The SLSS workshop provides an unique opportunity to solicit feedback from scientists,
conservation organizations, government agencies and knowledgeable experts in order to:
(1) Verify the accuracy of information presented in this document (much of which was published 5-10 years ago) and to identify data gaps, especially with respect to population size and protectedareas coverage for this species;
(2) Aid organizations in developing tightly targeting conservation actions by identifying critical snow leopard areas, parks and reserves, and by implication, the intervening linking corridors linking key protected areas;
(3) Serve as a catalyst for encouraging range-countries to conduct field surveys into snow leopard status and distribution, especially in those areas deemed the most important to the maintenance of a viable metapopulation across the 12 countries in which the species' occurs.
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Zhiryakov V.A. (2002). Ecology and behavior of the Snow leopard in Kazakhstan (Vol. N 1-4.).
Abstract: The data on spreading, numbers and population density of snow leopard in Kazakhstan are given in this article. The total number of the snow leopard in Kazakhstan is evaluated in 100-110 individuals. The everywhere occurred numbers' reduction under the influence of the anthropogenic factors is observed. The snow leopard' inhabitation area varies from 20 to 120 square kilometers depending on its regions. Sex and composition of the population and its aggregative behavior are given. The dynamics of numbers and mortality are estimated.
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Freeman, H. (1980). The snow leopard, today and yesterday. In L. Blomqvist (Ed.), International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, Vol. 2 (Vol. 2, pp. 37–43). Helsinki: Helsinki Zoo.
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Aromov, B. (2001). Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia) in Hissar Nature Reserve (Vol. Issue 3).
Abstract: Data on distribution, number, diet and breeding of snow leopard in NW spurs of the Hissar Ridge were collected over long-term studies in the span from 1981 to 1994. An increase in the number of this animal from 4 to 17 individuals has been recorded in the Hissar Nature Reserve (Uzbekistan).
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The Snow Leopard Conservancy. (2002). A Survey of Kathmandu-based Trekking Agencies: Market Opportunities for Linking Community-Based Ecotourism with the Conservation of Snow Leopard in the Annapurna Conservation Area. Report prepared for WWF-Nepal Programme (Vol. SLC Field Series Document No. 4). Los Gatos, California.
Abstract: In 2001 the King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation (KMTNC), Annapurna Conservation Area (ACAP), Snow Leopard Conservancy (SLC) and WWF-Nepal initiated a collaborative project aimed at enhancing ecotourism in the Manang area, in ways that strengthen benefits to local communities while also protecting the environment and the local culture. Manang is known for its relatively dense snow leopard population, along with supporting good numbers of blue sheep, the endangered cat's principal prey through much of the Himalaya. However, snow leopards periodically kill many livestock, leading to retributive killing by herders along with other associated people-wildlife conflict. In order to encourage the local people to better co-exist with snow leopards and other wildlife, SLC, WWF-Nepal and ACAP agreed to explore ways of providing tourism benefits to local communities as an incentive to protect this rare predator and conserve its alpine habitat. Key in this regard is the possibility of developing locally guided nature treks, and accordingly, this survey was conducted in order to assess existing market opportunities and constraints to such ecotourism enterprise.
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Jackson, R., & Ahlborn, G. (1990). The role of protected areas in Nepal in maintaining viable populations of snow leopards. Int.Ped.Book of Snow Leopards, 6, 51–69.
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Sokov, A. I. (1990). The present status of the snow leopard population in the south western Pamir-Altai Mountains (Tadzhikistan). Int.Ped.Book of Snow Leopards, 6, 33–36.
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Smirnov, M. N., Sokolov, G. A., & Zyryanov, A. N. (1990). The Snow Leopard (Uncia Uncia Scherber 1776) in Siberia. Int.Nat.Ped.Book of Snow Leopards, 6, 9–15.
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Koshkarev, E. P. (1990). On the environment-related stability of snow leopard (Uncia uncia) populations in connection with their distribution in the natural habitats and changes for spread within the USSR. Int.Ped.Book of Snow Leopards, 6, 37–50.
Abstract: The stability of animal populations in respect of the influence of the environment is well known to be conditioned by their location in the natural habitat and their ability to establish new territories. In the peripheral regions of natural habitat, however-in the zone that is ecologically least favourable-the situation of the animal is most unstable. This is due to increased pressure of environmental factors which favour neither a high frequency of contacts between individuals belonging to sperate populations nor an increase in the number of such contatcs and their stabilization. In our opinion, this describes the situation that has come about in certain regions inhabited by the snow leopard in the Soviet Union.
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Zhirjakov, V. A. (1990). On the ecology of the snow leopard in the Zailisky-Alatau (Northern Tien Shan). Int Ped Book of Snow Leopards, 6, 25–30.
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Karanth, K. U., Nichols, J.D., Seidensticker, J., Dinerstein, E., David Smith, J.L., McDougal, C., Johnsingh, A.J.T., Chundawat, R.S., Thapar, V. (2003). Science deficiency in conservation practice: the monitoring of tiger populations in India. Animal Conservation, 6, 141–146.
Abstract: Conservation practices are supposed to get refined by advancing scientific knowledge. We study this phenomenon in the context of monitoring tiger populations in India, by evaluating the ‘pugmark census method’ employed by wildlife managers for three decades. We use an analytical framework of modern animal population sampling to test the efficacy of the pugmark censuses using scientific data on tigers and our field observations. We identify three critical goals for monitoring tiger populations, in order of increasing sophistication: (1) distribution mapping, (2) tracking relative abundance, (3) estimation of absolute abundance. We demonstrate that the present census-based paradigm does not work because it ignores the first two simpler goals, and targets, but fails to achieve, the most difficult third goal. We point out the utility and ready availability of alternative monitoring paradigms that deal with the central problems of spatial sampling and observability. We propose an alternative sampling-based approach that can be tailored to meet practical needs of tiger monitoring at different levels of refinement.
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Kosharev, E. P. (1990). Excerpts from “The snow leopard in Kirgizia”. Snow Line, 8(2), 7–8.
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Blomqvist, L. (2003). The global snow leopard population in captivity 2001 (Vol. 8).
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Saltz, D., Rowen, M., & Rubenstein, D. (2000). The effect of space-use patterns of reintroduced Asiatic wild ass on effective population size. Conservation Biology, 14(6), 1852–1861.
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Ahmad, S., Rehman, E. U., Ali, H., Din, N., Haider, J., Din, J. U., Nawaz, M. A. (2022). Density Pattern of Flare-Horned Markhor (Capra falconeri) in Northern Pakistan. Sustainability, 14(9567), 1–13.
Abstract: Wild ungulates play vital roles in maintaining a balanced ecosystem through herbivory and are also an important determinant of carnivores’ density. The flare-horned markhor (Capra falconeri) is a threatened wild goat distributed across the mountain ranges of Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, Russia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan. The remote terrain and fragmented population limit our understanding of the population ecology of markhor, though knowledge of the target species population is vital for making informed management decisions. Therefore, the current study was designed to determine the markhor population across their range in Northern Pakistan and to evaluate the efforts made by the government and non-government organizations for the conservation of markhor. Double-observer surveys were conducted during 2019–2021 in nine major watersheds of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Gilgit-Baltistan covering an area of 4664 km2. Secondary data were collected for unassessed areas to gain a holistic overview of the markhor population and density in the region. Results revealed a markhor population of 7579, with a density of 0.30 animals per km2 in Northern Pakistan. Our analysis of the double-observer data through the Bayesian behavioral capture–recapture model estimated a population of 5993 individuals (95% CI) of markhor across
nine study sites, with a density of 1.28 animals per km . A review of secondary data revealed that
a population of about 1586 was present in the un-surveyed area (20,033.33 km2), with a density
of 0.08 per km . A total of 146 groups of markhor were counted, with a mean group size of 23
(3–58) individuals. There were 109 males and 108 young per 100 females in the population. Among 1936 recorded males, Class I males accounted for 27.74%, followed by Class II (26.45%), Class IV (trophy-size) (23.40%), and Class III (22.42%). The overall detection probability was recorded as 0.87 and 0.68 for the first observer and second observer, respectively. Compared with the past reports, the population of markhor in Northern Pakistan appears to be increasing, particularly in protected areas (PAs) such as national parks and community-controlled hunting areas (CCHAs). Conservation programs, notably trophy hunting and PA networks, appear to be vital in sustaining markhor populations in parts of the species range. We recommend expansion in such programs in the markhor range in order to maintain a viable population of this majestic wild goat in the region.
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Robinson, J. J., Crichlow, A. D., Hacker, C. E., Munkhtsog, B., Munkhtsog, B., Zhang, Y., Swanson, W. F., Lyons, L. A., Janecka, J. E. (2024). Genetic Variation in the Pallas’s Cat (Otocolobus manul) in Zoo-Managed and Wild Populations. Diversity, 16(228), 1–13.
Abstract: The Pallas’s cat (Otocolobus manul) is one of the most understudied taxa in the Felidae family. The species is currently assessed as being of “Least Concern” in the IUCN Red List, but this assessment is based on incomplete data. Additional ecological and genetic information is necessary for the long-term in situ and ex situ conservation of this species. We identified 29 microsatellite loci with sufficient diversity to enable studies into the individual identification, population structure, and phylogeography of Pallas’s cats. These microsatellites were genotyped on six wild Pallas’s cats from the Tibet Autonomous Region and Mongolia and ten cats from a United States zoo-managed population that originated in Russia and Mongolia. Additionally, we examined diversity in a 91 bp segment of the mitochondrial 12S ribosomal RNA (MT-RNR1) locus and a hypoxia-related gene, endothelial PAS domain protein 1 (EPAS1). Based on the microsatellite and MT-RNR1 loci, we established that the Pallas’s cat displays moderate genetic diversity. Intriguingly, we found that the Pallas’s cats had one unique nonsynonymous substitution in EPAS1 not present in snow leopards (Panthera uncia) or domestic cats (Felis catus). The analysis of the zoo-managed population indicated reduced genetic diversity compared to wild individuals. The genetic information from this study is a valuable resource for future research into and the conservation of the Pallas’s cat.
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Xu, F., Ming, M., Yin, S. -jing, & Mardan. (2005). Snow Leopard Survey in Tumor Nature Reserve, Xingjiang (Vol. 24).
Abstract: Snow leopard survey was conducted in Oct-Nov 2004 at Tumor National Natural Reserve, Xinjiang, China. Because of its special living style, the snow leopard is difficult to observe by sight. Signs left by snow leopard become a good index to prove the existance of the big cat. There are mainly five kinds of signs, footprints, fectes, claw rakes and urine spray. From them we can know the distribution, probably population and habitat selection of snow leopard. This time in Tumor we investigated 5 difference places: Pochenzi in Mozat River area, Boxidun in Little Kuzbay River area, Yinyer in Tomur River area, Kurgan and Taglak in Quiong Tailan River area. 42 transects were run in this trip and a total of 57 signs found. Among them, footprints amounted to 71.9%, scrapes 21.1%, and feces 7.0%. The results showed that the big cat existed in Yinyer, Kurgan and Taglak areas and liked to select their habitat in the valley and didn't like to live in barren areas.
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Blomqvist, L. (1979). The 1978 register for the captive population of snow leopards, Panthera uncia. International Zoo News, 26(7-8), 17–23.
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Reading, R. P., Amgalanbaatar, S., Mix, H., & Lhagvasuren, B. (1997). Argali Ovis ammon surveys in Mongolia's South Gobi. Oryx, 31(4), 285–294.
Abstract: Claims poaching and competition with domestic livestock are threatening the argali's survival in Mongolia. The author's conducted aerial and ground surveys in the South Gobi and estimated a populaton size of approximately 3,900 argali.
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