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Johansson, O., Rauset, G. R., Samelius, G., McCarthy, T., Andren, H., Tumursukh, L., Mishra, C. (2016). Land sharing is essential for snow leopard conservation. Biological Conservation, (203), 1–7.
Abstract: Conserving large carnivores in an increasingly crowded planet raises difficult challenges. A recurring debate is whether large carnivores can be conserved in human used landscapes (land sharing) or whether they require specially designated areas (land sparing). Here we show that 40% of the 170 protected areas in the global range of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) are smaller than the home range of a single adult male and only 4– 13% are large enough for a 90% probability of containing 15 or more adult females. We used data from 16 snow leopards equipped with GPS collars in the Tost Mountains of South Gobi, Mongolia, to calculate home range size and overlap using three different estimators: minimum convex polygons (MCP), kernel utility distributions (Kernel), and local convex hulls (LoCoH). Local convex hull home ranges were smaller and included lower proportions of unused habitats compared to home ranges based on minimum convex polygons and Kernels. Intra-sexual home range overlapwas low, especially for adult males, suggesting that snowleopards are territorial. Mean home range size based on the LoCoH estimates was 207 km2 ± 63 SD for adult males and 124 km2 ± 41 SD for adult females. Our estimates were 6–44 times larger than earlier estimates based on VHF technology when comparing similar estimators, i.e. MCP. Our study illustrates that protected areas alone will not be able to conserve predatorswith large home ranges and conservationists and managers should not restrict their efforts to land sparing.
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Johansson, O., McCarthy, T., Samelius, G., Andren, H., Tumursukh, L., Mishra, C. (2015). Snow leopard predation in a livestock dominated landscape in Mongolia. Biological Conservation, 184, 251–258.
Abstract: Livestock predation is an important cause of endangerment of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) across
its range. Yet, detailed information on individual and spatio-temporal variation in predation patterns of snow leopards and their kill rates of livestock and wild ungulates are lacking. We collared 19 snow leopards in the Tost Mountains, Mongolia, and searched clusters of GPS positions to identify prey remains and estimate kill rate and prey choice. Snow leopards killed, on average, one ungulate every 8 days, which included more wild prey (73%) than livestock (27%), despite livestock abundance being at least one order of magnitude higher. Predation on herded livestock occurred mainly on stragglers and in rugged areas where animals are out of sight of herders. The two wild ungulates, ibex (Capra ibex) and argali (Ovis ammon), were killed in proportion to their relative abundance. Predation patterns changed with spatial (wild ungulates) and seasonal (livestock) changes in prey abundance. Adult male snow leopards killed larger prey and 2–6 times more livestock compared to females and young males. Kill rates were considerably higher than previous scat-based estimates, and kill rates of females were higher than kill rates of males. We suggest that (i) snow leopards prey largely on wild ungulates and kill livestock opportunistically, (ii) retaliatory killing by livestock herders is likely to cause greater mortality of adult male snow leopards compared to females and young males, and (iii) total off-take of prey by a snow leopard population is likely to be much higher than previous estimates suggest. |
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Han, X. M., D. G., Zhang, E., Jones, M., and Jin, T.. (2001). Far eastern leopard and Siberian tiger conservation measures. (pp. 102–103). Harbin: Widlife Conservation Society.
Abstract: Workshop to develop a recovery plan for the wild north China tiger population. October 20th to 23th, 2000, Harbin.
Like the Siberian Tiger, the Far Eastern Leopard is one of China's largest Felidae and lives mainly in the eastern mountains of Jilin Province. The number of leopards is very low and it is even more endangered than the tiger. There is a very close relationship between leopard and tiger conservation, especially in areas where overlap occurs. In these areas, special emphasis has to be placed on each of the species' specific conservation needs. There is urgent need to step up our efforts to study and monitor leopard populations and to develop a conservation strategy. This document contains information of the status and main threats of the Far Eastern leopard and makes recommendations on needed conservation measures. |
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Hanson, J. H., Schutgens, M., Baral, N. What explains tourists support for snow leopard conservation in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal? Human Dimensions of Wildlife, , 1–15.
Abstract: Wildlife tourism is increasingly important for the conservation of
threatened species such as snow leopards. However, what tourists know or value about snow leopards, and to what extent they support the conservation of this species, has received limited empirical attention. This paper investigates tourist knowledge about snow leopards, beliefs and values toward the species, and support for its conservation in the Annapurna Conservation Area of Nepal. Survey data were collected from 406 foreign tourists between March and May 2014. Although knowledge about snow leopards varied among respondents, there was widespread support for their conservation. Knowledge about snow leopards was best explained by education level and environmental organization membership. Improved knowledge about the species, and a variety of intrinsic conservation values, were found to increase tourist support for snow leopard conservation. These results provide important insights to help tailor tourism initiatives to support the conservation of snow leopards. |
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Hanson, J. H., Schutgens, M., Lama, R.P., Aryal, A., Dhakal, M. (2018). Local attitudes to the proposed translocation of blue sheep Pseudois nayaur to Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal. Fauna & Flora International, , 1–7.
Abstract: Translocations are an important tool for the conservation
of biodiversity, but although ecological feasibility studies are frequently conducted prior to implementation, social feasibility studies that consider how local communities perceive such projects are less common. The translocation of blue sheep Pseudois nayaur to Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal, has been proposed, to reduce livestock depredation by snow leopards Panthera uncia by providing an alternative prey base in addition to the small population of Himalayan thar Hemitragus jemlahicus. This study used systematic sampling, a quantitative questionnaire and qualitative interviews within the Park to provide data on the social viability of the proposed translocation. Quantitative analysis revealed moderate levels of support but qualitative analysis suggested that there are significant concerns about the proposal. In addition,multiple regression analysis found that women and livestock owners were significantly less supportive, although the model had low explanatory power. Potential crop damage and competition for forage were frequently cited as concerns, especially amongst those with a high level of dependence on natural resources. Given the mixed response to the proposed translocation of blue sheep to the Everest region, alleviating the reservations of local residents is likely to be key to any further consultation, planning or implementation. |
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Gronberg, E. (2011). Movement patterns of snow leopard (Panthera uncia) around kills based on GPS location clusters. Master's thesis, , .
Abstract: Research concerning movement patterns of wild animals has been advancing since GPS technology arrived. But studying the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) is still difficult because of the harsh territory it inhabits in Central Asia. This study took place in south Gobi, Mongolia, and aimed to estimate the time spent at kills and the maximum distance away from kills between visits. Snow leopards were monitored with GPS collars that took a location every five or seven hours. Potential kill sites were established by identifying clusters of GPS-locations in ArcGIS and visited in the field for confirmation. ArcGIS was used to calculate the distance between cluster and GPS-locations. I used two buffer zones (100 m and 500 m radius) to define the time snow leopards spent at kills. It was found that snow leopard age and prey category affected time spent at kills and also that snow leopard sex together with prey category affected the maximum distance moved away from kills between visits. Season had no significant effect on either time at kills or distance moved away from kills between visits. Snow leopards spent on average 3.2 days at their kills in the 100 m buffer zone and 3.5 days at their kills in the 500 m buffer zone. Subadults stayed longer at kills than adults and animals of both age categories spent longer time on larger prey. The mean maximum distance moved away from kills between visits was 179 m in the 100 m buffer zone and 252 m in the 500 m buffer zone. Female snow leopards moved further away from kills between visits than male snow leopards. Both the number of days spent on kills and maximum distance moved away from kills between visits increased when kills consisted of more than one animal. This study has provided some basic information on snow leopard behaviors around their kills but also highlights the need to monitor more snow leopards before more solid conclusions can be drawn as this study was based on based on a relatively small sample.
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Christiansen, P. (2007). Canine morphology in the larger Felidae: implications for feeding ecology. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 91, 573–592.
Abstract: Canine morphology is analysed at seven intervals along the crown in both
anteroposterior and lateromedial perspective in seven species of large felids. The puma and the snow leopard have stout, rather conical canines, whereas those of lions, jaguars, and tigers bear substantial resemblance to each other, reflecting their phylogenetic relationships, and are less conical and large. The canines of the leopard are intermediate in morphology between those of the other species, probably reflecting its more generalized diet. The clouded leopard has very large and blade-like canines, which are different from the other analysed species. Canine bending strengths to estimated bite forces appear to differ less among the species than morphology,indicating that the evolution of canines has been constricted with respect to their strength in failure, probably owing to their being equally important for species fitness. However, the clouded leopard again stands out, having a high estimated bite force and rather weak canines in bending about the anteroposterior as well as lateromedial planes compared to the other species. Canine morphology to some extent reflects differences in killing mode, but also appears to be related to the phylogeny. The marked divergence of the clouded leopard is presently not understood. |
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Chetri, M., Odden, M., Sharma, K., Flagstad, O., Wegge, P. (2019). Estimating snow leopard density using fecal DNA in a large landscape in north-central Nepal. Global Ecology and Conservation, (17), 1–8.
Abstract: Although abundance estimates have a strong bearing on the conservation status of a
species, less than 2% of the global snow leopard distribution range has been sampled systematically, mostly in small survey areas. In order to estimate snow leopard density across a large landscape, we collected 347 putative snow leopard scats from 246 transects (490 km) in twenty-six 5 5km sized sampling grid cells within 4393 km2 in Annapurna- Manaslu, Nepal. From 182 confirmed snow leopard scats, 81 were identified as belonging to 34 individuals; the remaining were discarded for their low (<0.625) quality index. Using maximum likelihood based spatial capture recapture analysis, we developed candidate model sets to test effects of various covariates on density and detection of scats on transects. The best models described the variation in density as a quadratic function of elevation and detection as a linear function of topography. The average density estimate of snow leopards for the area of interest within Nepal was 0.95 (SE 0.19) animals per 100 km2 (0.66e1.41 95% CL) with predicted densities varying between 0.1 and 1.9 in different parts, thus highlighting the heterogeneity in densities as a function of habitat types. Our density estimate was low compared to previous estimates from smaller study areas. Probably, estimates from some of these areas were inflated due to locally high abundances in overlap zones (hotspots) of neighboring individuals, whose territories probably range far beyond study area borders. Our results highlight the need for a large-scale approach in snow leopard monitoring, and we recommend that methodological problems related to spatial scale are taken into account in future snow leopard research. |
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Chapron, G. (2005). Re-wilding: other projects help carnivores stay wild. Nature, 437, 318.
Abstract: Letter to Nature Editor, in response to: In their plea for bringing Pleistocene wildlife to the New World (“Re-wilding North America” Nature 436, 913–914; 2005), Josh Donlan and colleagues do not discuss successful efforts to ensure long-term survival of large carnivores in Africa and Asia. A few examples are given.
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Bocci, A., Lovari, S., Khan, M. Z., Mori, E. (2017). Sympatric snow leopards and Tibetan wolves: coexistence of large carnivores with human-driven potential competition. European Journal of Wildlife Research, , 1–9.
Abstract: The snow leopard Panthera uncia coexists with the wolf Canis lupus throughout most of its distribution range.
We analysed the food habits of snow leopards and wolves in their sympatric range in the Karakoram mountains of Pakistan. A total of 131 genotyped scats (N = 74, snow leopard; N = 57, Tibetan wolf) were collected during the cold periods (i.e. winter and spring) of 2011 and 2012 in the Hushey valley. Large mammals, i.e. livestock and ibex, accounted for 84.8 and 83.1% of the diet (relative frequency) of the snow leopard and the wolf, respectively. Domestic prey was the staple of the diet of both snow leopards (66.6%) and wolves (75.1%). Ibex Capra ibex, the only wild ungulate in our study area, contributed 18.2 and 16.9%of relative frequencies in the diets of the snow leopard and the wolf, respectively. In winter, the snowleopard heavily relied on domestic sheep (43.3%) for food, whereas the wolf preyed mainly on domestic goats (43.4%). Differently from other study areas, both snow leopards and wolves showed no apparent prey preference (Jacobs index: snow leopard min. − 0.098, max. 0.102; Tibetan wolf min. − 0.120, max. 0.03). In human depauperate areas, with livestock and only a few wild prey, should competitive interactions arise, two main scenarios could be expected, with either predator as a winner. In both cases, the best solution could primarily impinge on habitat restoration, so that a balance could be found between these predators, who have already coexisted for thousands of years. |