Abstract: Large carnivores are of vital importance to the stability and integrity of most ecosystems, but recent declines in free-ranging populations have highlighted the potentially devastating effect of infectious diseases on their conservation. We reviewed the literature on infectious diseases of 34 large (maximum body mass of adults >20 kg) terrestrial carnivore species, 18 of which are considered to be threatened in the wild, and examined reports of antibody prevalence (seroprevalence) and cases of infection, mortality and population decline. Of 52 diseases examined, 44% were viral, 31% bacterial and the remainder were protozoal or fungal. Many infections were endemic in carnivores and/or infected multiple taxonomic families, with the majority probably occurring via inhalation or ingestion. Most disease studies consisted of serological surveys for disease antibodies, and antibody detection tended to be widespread implying that exposure to micro-organisms was common. Seroprevalence was higher in tropical than temperate areas, and marginally higher for infections known to occur in multiple carnivore groups. Confirmation of active infection via micro-organism recovery was less common for ursids than other taxonomic groups. Published descriptions of disease-induced population decline or extinction were rare, and most outbreaks were allegedly the result of direct transmission of rabies or canine distemper virus (CDV) from abundant carnivore species to less-common large carnivores. We conclude that the threat of disease epidemics in large carnivores may be serious if otherwise lethal infections are endemic in reservoir hosts and transmitted horizontally among taxa. To prevent or mitigate future population declines, research efforts should be aimed at identifying both the diseases of potential importance to large carnivores and the ecological conditions associated with their spread and severity.

Abstract: In Russia, traditions of track observations and the use of tracking techniques in studying the ecology and behavior of mammals were founded by A.N. Formozov. An analytic review of his data on large carnivorous mammals (tiger, snow leopard, wolf, brown bear, wolverine, and others) is given. A special detailed observation of animals' tracks as a source of information on their life is shown only to start. The efficiency of track observations in various fields of studies, including counting animals, is estimated. The values of day and night distances for various animal species, given in literature, have never been properly substantiated methodically. The tracking method is the most effective in studying the use of the home range by animals, drawing the network of their movements and scent-marking behavior. The hunting behavior of large predators in dense forests is can only be deduced by observing their tracks. In some cases, the use of tracking has a distinct advantage over radio tracking. The main propositions are illustrated by the materials of the author obtained in various Russian regions (in forests of the northern Russian Plain and southern Far east) for 1958-1998.

Abstract: The distribution and status of large mammals was surveyed in a 15 000 km2 study area in Ladakh, India. Snow leopard Panthera uncia, wolf Canis lupus, ibex Capra ibex and bharal Pseudois nayaur have an almost continuous distribution throughout; Ladakh urial Ovis vignei, Tibetan argali Ovis ammon, wild ass Equus kiang and brown bear Ursus arctos have a limited distribution. Snow leopard prefer lower altitudes and rocky, undisturbed areas. Ibex and bharal occupy similar rocky habitats but their ranges are mostly separate, with a small area of overlap. The Ladakh urial shows signs of recovery from an earlier decline. Natural resources are widely used for fuel, fodder and grazing, but favourable factors include a low human population, low level of hunting and the existence of some uninhabited and undisturbed areas. A comprehensive Protected Area Network has been proposed.