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Lovari, S., Minder, I., Ferretti, F., Mucci, N., Randi, E., Pellizzi, B. (2013). Common and snow leopards share prey, but not habitats: competition avoidance by large predators. Journal of Zoology, 291, 127–135.
Abstract: Resource exploitation and behavioural interference underlie competition among
carnivores. Competition is reduced by specializing on different prey and/or spatiotemporal
separation, usually leading to different food habits. We predicted that
two closely related species of large cats, the endangered snow leopard and the
near-threatened common leopard, living in sympatry, would coexist through
habitat separation and exploitation of different prey species. In central Himalaya,
we assessed (2006–2010) habitat and diet overlap between these carnivores. The
snow leopard used grassland and shrubland, whereas the common leopard
selected forest. Contrary to our prediction, snow leopard and common leopard
preyed upon similar wild (Himalayan tahr, musk deer) and domestic species (Bos
spp., dogs). Dietary overlap between snow leopard and common leopard was 69%
(yearly), 76% (colder months) and 60% (warmer months). Thus, habitat separation
should be the result of other factors, most likely avoidance of interspecific
aggression. Habitat separation may not always lead to the use of different prey.
Avoidance of interspecific aggression, rather than exploitation of different
resources, could allow the coexistence of potentially competing large predators.
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Lyngdoh, S., Shrotriya, S., Goyal, S. P., Clements, H., Hayward, M. W., Habib, B. (2014). Prey Preferences of the Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia): Regional Diet Specificity Holds Global Significance for Conservation. Plos One, 9(2), 1–11.
Abstract: The endangered snow leopard is a large felid that is distributed over 1.83 million km2 globally. Throughout its range it relies on a limited number of prey species in some of the most inhospitable landscapes on the planet where high rates of human persecution exist for both predator and prey. We reviewed 14 published and 11 unpublished studies pertaining to snow leopard diet throughout its range. We calculated prey consumption in terms of frequency of occurrence and biomass consumed based on 1696 analysed scats from throughout the snow leopard’s range. Prey biomass consumed was calculated based on the Ackerman’s linear correction factor. We identified four distinct physiographic and snow leopard prey type zones, using cluster analysis that had unique prey assemblages and had key prey characteristics which supported snow leopard occurrence there. Levin’s index showed the snow leopard had a specialized dietary niche breadth. The main prey of the snow leopard were Siberian ibex (Capra sibrica), blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), argali (Ovis ammon) and marmots (Marmota spp). The significantly preferred prey species of snow leopard weighed 5565 kg, while the preferred prey weight range of snow leopard was 36–76 kg with a significant preference for Siberian ibex and blue sheep. Our meta-analysis identified critical dietary resources for snow leopards throughout their distribution and illustrates the importance of understanding regional variation in species ecology; particularly prey species
that have global implications for conservation.
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Maheshwari, A., Takpa, J., Kujur, S., Shawl, T. (2010). An Investigation of Carnivore-Human Conflicts in Kargil and Drass Areas of Jammu and Kashmir, India. India.
Abstract: Still, there are areas from where very poor information is available on snow leopard and associated species. Keeping this in view, Kargil and Drass areas of Ladakh,Jammu and Kashmir were identified as “gaps” in available information on snow leopard. Kargil has not received much attention for wildlife studies due to its proximity to the International Boundary between India and Pakistan and resultant security implications. The only information available from the area is from a study done by Sathyakumar (2003) on the occurrence of Himalayan brown bear from Zanskar and Suru Valleys in Ladakh. But there was very poor information on the occurrence and distribution of other carnivores and conflicts with humans in Kargil. Therefore, this study was felt necessary to establish the following objectives:
1. Surveys for the occurrence and distribution of snow leopard and other large
carnivores and their prey
2. To estimate abundance of prey species
3. To study food habits of snow leopard and other carnivores based on scat analysis
4. To study the of carnivore – human conflicts
5. To study the socio-economic conditions of rural community and develop local
awareness programme
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Maheshwari, A., Sharma, D., Sathyakumar, S. (2013). Snow Leopard (Panthera Uncia) surveys in the Western Himalayas, India. Journal of Ecology and Natural Environmnet, 5(10), 303–309.
Abstract: We conducted surveys above 3000 m elevation in eight protected areas of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. These surveys provide new information on snow leopard in Uttarakhand on the basis of indirect evidence such as pugmark and scat. Snow leopard evidence (n = 13) were found between 3190 and 4115 m elevation. On an average, scats (n = 09) of snow leopard were found for every 56 km walked and pugmarks (n = 04) for every 126 km walked. Altogether, about 39% of the evidence were found on the hill-slope followed by valley floor (30%), cliff (15%) and 8% from both stream bed and scree slope. Genetic analysis of the scats identified three different individuals by using snow leopard specific primers. Snow leopard-human conflicts were assessed through questionnaire based interviews of shepherds from Govind Pashu Vihar Wildlife Sanctuary, Askot Wildlife Sanctuary and Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve areas of Uttarakhand. Surveys revealed that livestock depredation (mule, goat and sheep) is the only cause of snow leopard-human conflicts and contributed 36% of the diet of snow leopard. Blue sheep and rodents together comprised 36.4% of the total diet. We found that 68.1% of the surveyed area was used for pastoral activities in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh and 12.3% area was under tourism, defence and developmental activities.
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Maheshwari, A., Midha, N., Chehrukupalli, A. (2014). Participatory Rural Appraisal and Compensation Intervention: Challenges and Protocols While Managing Large Carnivore–Human Conflict. Human Dimensions of Wildlife: An International Journal, 19, 62–71.
Abstract: When large carnivores cause socioeconomic losses in a community, conflict increases,
retaliatory killing of the carnivore can occur, and conservation efforts are undermined.
We focused on Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and economic compensation
schemes as approaches for managing conflict. PRA is a tool for collecting data on
the large carnivore–human conflict and economic compensation schemes for those
affected negatively by carnivore presence. We reviewed published papers and reports
on large carnivore–human conflicts, PRA, and compensation schemes. This article
details insights into common pitfalls, key lessons learned, possible solutions including
new approaches for compensation and protocols to be followed while managing large
carnivore–human conflict. We hope to contribute to a meaningful dialogue between
locals, managers, and researchers and help in effective implementation of conservation
programs to mitigate large carnivore–human conflict around the protected areas.
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Maheshwari, A., Sharma, D. (2010). Snow leopard conservation in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh.
Abstract: The Greater and Trans Himalayan regions of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh have great potential in terms of wildlife (flora and fauna). This survey was the first ever survey for the snow leopard in Uttarakhand and some of the areas of Himachal Pradesh till date. It confirms the presence of snow leopard in Uttarakhand on the basis of indirect evidence. We could not find any evidence of snow leopard from surveyed areas in Himachal Pradesh – but it certainly does not mean that there are no snow leopards in the surveyed areas.
Areas above 3000m elevation were selected for this survey in 10 protected areas of both the states. Status and distribution of snow leopard was assessed through indirect evidence (n=13) found between 3190 and 4115m. On average, one indirect evidence of snow leopard was found for every 39km walked. About 39% of the evidence was found on the hill-slope followed by valley floor (30%), cliff (15%) and 8% from both stream bed and scree slope. Preferred mean slope was 28° (maximum 60°). Snow leopard-human conflicts were assessed through questionnaire surveys from Govind Pashu Vihar, Askot Wild Life Sanctuary and Dung (Munsiari) areas. They revealed that livestock depredation is the only component of conflict and contributed to 36% of the total diet (mule, goat and sheep) of snow leopard. Blue sheep and rodents together comprised 36.4% of the total diet.
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Mallon, D. P., Jackson, R. M. (2017). A downlist is not a demotion: Red List status and reality. Oryx, , 1–5.
Abstract: Assessments of biodiversity status are needed to
track trends, and the IUCN Red List has become the accepted
global standard for documenting the extinction
risk of species. Obtaining robust data on population size is
an essential component of any assessment of a species� status,
including assessments for the IUCN Red List. Obtaining
such estimates is complicated by methodological and
logistical issues, which are more pronounced in the case of
cryptic species, such as the snow leopard Panthera uncia.
Estimates of the total population size of this species have,
to date, been based on little more than guesstimates, but a
comprehensive summary of recent field research indicates
that the conservation status of the snow leopard may be
less dire than previously thought. A revised categorization,
from Endangered to Vulnerable, on the IUCN Red List was
proposed but met some opposition, as did a recent, similar
recategorization of the giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca.
Possible factors motivating such attitudes are discussed.
Downlisting on the IUCN Red List indicates that the species
concerned is further from extinction, and is always to be
welcomed, whether resulting from successful conservation
intervention or improved knowledge of status and trends.
Celebrating success is important to reinforce the message
that conservation works, and to incentivize donors.
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Mallon, D., Kulikov, M. (2015). Transboundary Snow Leopard Conservation in Central Asia: Report of the FFI/CMS Workshop, 1-2 December 2014.
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Mallon, D. (2013). Trophy Hunting of Cites-Listed Species in Central Asia.
Abstract: Executive Summary:
The report is part of a project aiming to strengthen capacities to implement CITES, especially in
Central Asia and to satisfy the CITES‐related requirements of trading partners, to prevent
overexploitation and to ensure legal international trade in wild fauna and flora does not exceed
sustainable levels. The objective is to enhance the policies and regulations concerning trophy
hunting in selected range States of the Argali Ovis ammon: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, the Russian
Federation, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan and to provide a framework for the establishment of
sustainable hunting programmes that support conservation. This report is focused on the relevance
of trophy hunting for conservation and associated local livelihoods.
Sustainable use of biological diversity is an integral part of the Convention on Biodiversity (1992) and
is seen as a valuable tool in conserving biological diversity. The Addis Ababa Principles and Guidelines
(AAPG) set out the basis for sustainable use of natural resources. The IUCN SSC1 Guiding Principles on
Trophy Hunting as a Tool for Creating Conservation Incentives, and the European Charter on Hunting
and Biodiversity provide further guidance on the sustainability of trophy hunting, including on highly
threatened species. The International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation (CIC) together
with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has also developed Best
Practice Guidelines for trophy hunting.
All five project countries are Parties to CITES, except Tajikistan, which has begun the accession
process. Argali are the focus of the trophy hunting in the region and they represent the most
expensive trophy in the five project countries. Other CITES‐listed hunting species are Brown Bear
Ursus arctos, Wolf Canis lupus, Musk Deer Moschus moschiferus, Eurasian Lynx Lynx lynx (all mainly
in Russia) and Houbara Bustard Chlamydotis undulata. Markhor Capra falconeri and Urial Ovis
orientalis have also been hunted at times but are not the object of regular trophy hunting
programmes at present. Other widely hunted species are not listed in the CITES Appendices.
A recent analysis by TRAFFIC of the CITES trade database showed that 10 245 hunting trophy items
from species listed in the CITES Appendices were exported from the project countries between 2000
and 2010. Almost all trophy items consisted of Argali, Brown Bear and Wolf. Most were exported
from Russia (9473 trophies), with smaller numbers from Tajikistan (705), Kyrgyzstan (668), and
Kazakhstan (126), and 13 from Uzbekistan.
In the region, wildlife is generally the property of the State, which awards rights to use it to
individuals or other entities. National legislation covering hunting and wildlife protection may refer
to sustainable use but this is undefined. The legal rights of local communities are also not generally
specified. FAO and CIC produced a review of national legislation that set out in detail the basic
principles of sustainable wildlife management laws (2008). One of the main findings was that
legislative frameworks in the region frequently consisted of different legal instruments that were not
always harmonized and sometimes overlapped. In some cases, there was also a lack of institutional
clarity, with overlapping jurisdictions among different agencies.
Poaching for meat and trophies or commercial products is a significant factor across the whole
region, negatively affecting all the main hunting species, as well as protected species. Wild
populations have been reduced, sometimes drastically so. Poaching of Argali and other mountain
ungulates may be carried out by military or border personnel and is not restricted to areas outside
formal nature reserves: indeed, law enforcement and protected area staff are sometimes complicit
in illegal hunting, driven in part by the very low salaries. There are numerous recent examples of
poaching and illegal trade in trophies of CITES‐listed species. The actual level of illegal off‐take is
unknown. Known cases may represent a very small fraction of the real total. The wildlife
conservation sector is under‐resourced across the region with a lack of funding, trained personnel,
transport and other equipment severely limiting the effectiveness of anti‐poaching efforts.
Memoranda of Understanding under the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS MoUs) and their
associated action plans for Saiga Saiga tatarica and Bukhara Deer Cervus elaphus bactrianus have
proven to be effective instruments in facilitating species recovery. A CMS Single Species Action Plan
for Argali is in preparation (Roettger & Singh, in prep) and will provide a framework for conservation.
Trophy hunting in the region is predominantly organized on a commercial basis. Community‐based
hunting initiatives in the region are in their infancy and face some legal and institutional obstacles.
There are however promising developments: for example, five community‐based NGOs in Tajikistan
are managing wildlife in legally assigned areas and three of them have hosted hunting clients (on
non‐CITES species). Well‐developed community‐based trophy hunting programmes operate in
Pakistan, targeted at Markhor Capra falconeri which is listed in CITES Appendix I, and in Namibia,
which is widely seen as a leader in such programmes, and while the specific conditions and sociopolitical
background of both differ in several ways from those in the region, they nonetheless
provide instructive guidance on the principles of successful community conservancy organization.
There is an extensive literature on trophy hunting, its potential to contribute to conservation of
biodiversity and local livelihoods, and the potential negative effects of selective harvesting on
species. The consensus view seems to be that selective harvest of trophy‐age males does not impact
negatively in the short term, if only a low proportion of the available trophy‐age individuals are
harvested, but uncontrolled harvest can lead to a decline in horn size and thus trophy quality, as well
as have negative demographic effects. Trophy hunting programmes raise substantial revenues in
some African countries, and in the best cases significant sums are received at community or
conservancy level. However, this is not universally the case and inequitable benefit sharing remains
a major challenge to be overcome. Good governance is an essential requirement when developing
hunting and other forms of community based management initiative.
A possible decline in size of Argali trophies in Kyrgyzstan has been reported and determining
whether this is actually the case, and the causes, is a priority. Standardized monitoring, involvement
of independent experts, transparency in quota setting and allocation of licences are all seen as
prerequisites of well‐managed and sustainable hunting operations. Allocation of long‐term leases for
concessions is needed to motivate managers to invest in anti‐poaching and other conservation
measures and remove the temptation for short‐term profit that threatens the sustainability of the
resource.
Developing all forms of Community‐based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) – trophy hunting
and tourism – is also recommended. As the concept is still new to many parts of the region, and the
legal‐political background is not always sympathetic, building on examples of existing community
conservancies (in Tajikistan) or where there is an administrative basis for local management of
resources (Kyrgyzstan), is likely to be effective. Ensuring that communities and conservancies are
legally empowered to manage and utilise wildlife and to receive revenues for such use is a basic
requirement.
Recommendations on good practice are set out in several publications and salient points relevant to the region are highlighted.
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MaMing, R.. F., Xu. Yun, Cheng et al. (2013). Snow Leopards in Xinjiang.
Abstract: The snow leopard Uncia uncia is a globally endangered species, occurring in China and 11
neighboring countries, with a total population of 3500-7000 individuals. China is very important
for Snow Leopards, as it contains both the more than half of the distribution area and the largest
remaining population. However, like other big cats, the density is very low, perhaps less than 1
individual per 100 square kilometers in the western mountains of China. This book first reviewed
ten years of research by Xinjiang Snow Leopard Team (XSLT), and it contains over 300 figures
including maps, illustrations, pictures and photos, 46 tables as well as more than a thousand
references and 1100 key words in the index.
In the past ten years, XSLT has received much support and funding from the Snow Leopard
Trust (SLT) and the Xinjiang Conservation Fund (XCF). In this regard, the Chinese government
has not yet given one cent to support the Xinjiang Snow Leopard Project. Our situation is very
difficult indeed, and it is hoped that this book will inspire future government support.
There are many topics discussed in this work including a decade of successes or failures with
the Snow Leopard Survival Strategy (SLSS from 2002 to 2012). The authors also present findings
from every International Snow Leopard Conference (1978-2008), the stories of 14 experts, the big
events of conservation and research (1776-2012), and many questions for future research in the
appendix. This is the first work about snow leopards in China. It is a popular scientific book that
covers snow leopard monitoring, research, conservation and management, and it could also be
very helpful to nature reserve staff and scientists as well as students, teachers, outdoor explorers,
volunteers and cat lovers.
The book contains the following: preface, table of contents (in English), and chapters on the
ancient records of snow leopards; their place in the family of big cats; research methods and field
logs for snow leopards; their population size and distribution in China; biological knowledge,
conservation and management of snow leopards; their presence in zoos; Nature Reserves in
Xinjiang, the experiences of snow leopard conservation in other countries; appendix; index; and
afterword (ISBN 978-7-03-036723-5, the book was published in March 2013 with total of 616
pages and approximately 0.77 million Chinese words, price: RMB 145.00 Yuan).
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