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O'Connor, T., & Freeman, H. (1982). Maternal behavior and behavioral development in the captive snow leopard (Panthera uncia). In L. Blomqvist (Ed.), International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, Vol. 3 (Vol. 3, pp. 103–110). Helsinki: Helsinki Zoo.
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Rieger, I. (1978). Scent marking behaviour of ounces, Uncia uncia. In L. Blomqvist (Ed.), International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, Vol. 1 (Vol. 1, pp. 78–103). Helsinki: Helsinki Zoo.
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Freeman, H. (1982). Characteristics of the social behavior in the snow leopard. In L. Blomqvist (Ed.), International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, Vol. 3 (Vol. 3, pp. 117–120). Helsinki: Helsinki Zoo.
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Jackson, R. M. (1996). Home Range, Movements and Habitat use of Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia) in Nepal. Ph.D. thesis, University of London, University of London.
Abstract: Home ranges for five radio-tagged snow leopards (Uncia uncia) inhabiting prime habitat in Nepal Himalaya varied in size from 11-37 km2. These solitary felids were crepuscular in activity, and although highly mobile, nearly 90% of all consecutive day movements involved a straight line distance of 2km or less. No seasonal difference in daily movement or home range boundry was detected. While home ranges overlapped substancially, use of common core spaces was temporally seperated, with tagged animals being located 1.9 km or more apart during the smae day. Spatial analysis indicated that 47-55% of use occured within only 6-15% of total home area. The snow leopards shared a common core use area, which was located at a major stream confuence in an area where topography, habitat and prey abundance appeared to be more favorable. A young female used her core area least, a female with two cubs to the greatest extent. the core area was marked significantly more with scrapes, Faeces and other sighn than non-core sites, suggesting that social marking plays an important role in spacing individuals. Snow leopards showed a strong preference for bedding in steep, rocky or broken terrain, on or close to a natural vegetation or landform edge. linear landform features, such as a cliff or major ridgeline, were preferred for travelling and day time resting. This behavior would tend to place a snow leopard close to its preferred prey, blue sheep (Psuedois nayaur), which uses the same habitat at night. Marking was concetrated along commonly travelled routes, particularly river bluffs, cliff ledges and well defined ridgelines bordering stream confluences--features that were most abundant within the core area. Such marking may facilitate mutual avoidance, help maintain the species' solitary social structure, and also enable a relatively high density of snow leopard, especially within high-quality habitat.
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Meiers, S. T. (1992). Habitat use by captive puma (Felis concolor) and snow leopards (Pathera uncia) at the Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, Illinois. Ph.D. thesis, DePaul University, .
Abstract: Between May 1990 and January 1991, behavioral observations were made of two captive pumas (Felis concolor Linnaeus), and two captive snow leopards (Panthera uncia Schreber) in their outdoor exhibits at the Lincoln Park Zoological Gardens, Chicago, Illinois. Behaviors compared within and between species included: 1) time spend in the different habitat types; 2) time budgets for the different behaviors: laying, moving, sitting, standing, crouching, in the tree, drinking, urinating, defecating, within their inside dens, and “behavior not determined” when the identity or behavior of the individuals could not be determined; and 3) mobility of the animals within their exhibits. Also examined were: 4) preferences for different habitat types; 5) recommendations for future exhibit designs. Both species located themselves within their exhibits in a non-random manner. The majority of cats' time was spent in elevated locations (i.e., gunite ledges approximately 1-5.5 m above ground-level). Snow leopards exhibited this tendency to a greater extent than did the pumas. Both species also spent the majority of their time in the lying-down behavior; again snow leopards displayed this tendency significantly more than the pumas. Pumas were highly mobile and changed locations and behaviors in their exhibit significantly more than the snow leopards. No significant differences were noted between conspecifics in regard to habitat type preference, or mobility within the exhibit. Suggestions for future exhibit design include elevated locations for the cats to lay and look around within and outside their exhibits, caves for access to shade or relief from inclement weather, and ground surfaces to move about on. Features for exhibit design should take into consideration the natural habitat of the cat to occupy the exhibit.
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Pokrovski, V. S. (1976). The Snow Leopard Large Predators. Moscow.
Abstract: Detailed review of snow leopard distribution and abundance, behavior, ecology,captive population and conservation measures in the Soviet Union. Estimates a snow leopard population of 300 +/- 150.
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Schaller, G. B. (1977). Mountain Monarchs: Wild Sheep and Goats of the Himalaya (Wildlife Behavior & Ecology). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Abstract: Describes snow leopard status and field observations from studies in Pakistan and Nepal. Review provides some data on snow leopard marking behavior, social relations, food habits and predator behavior.
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Schaller, G. B. (1980). Stones of Silence: Journeys in the Himalaya. New York: Viking Press.
Abstract: Anecdotal description of wildlife field studies in the Himalaya, including information on snow leopard natural history and an encounter with snow leopards in Pakistan.
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Ahlborn, G., & Jackson, R. M. (1988). Marking in Free-Ranging Snow Leopards in West Nepal: A preliminary assesment. In H.Freeman (Ed.), (pp. 25–49). India: Snow Leopard Trust and the Wildlife Institute of India.
Abstract: Describes and Quantifies snow leopard marking behaviour, based primarily on sign, gatherd during a four year study in Nepal. Emphasis is on scrapes and spray markings, detailing their frequency of occurence realtive to habitat characteristics and season. Both sexes mark intensively, sign abundance is associated with intensity of use, and sign is concentrated along breaks in terrain.
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Malik, M. M. (1997). The Current Status of Snow Leopards and Their Prey Status and Conservation of Snow Leopard in Pakistan. In R.Jackson, & A.Ashiq (Eds.), (pp. 11–20). Lahore, Pakistan: International Snow Leopard Trust.
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Mallon, D. P. (1988). A Further Report on The Snow Leopard in Ladakh. In H.Freeman (Ed.), (pp. 89–97). India: Snow Leopard Trust and Wildlife Institute of India.
Abstract: A detailed knowledge of the ecology of a species is fundemental to the drawing up of effective conservation measures. One aim of the current project was to identify good areas of snow leopard habitatand evaluate them for possible inclusion in the Protected Area Network. Several good areas were surveyed and an outstanding area identified, and included in a report to the Chief Wildlife Warden.
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Jackson, R. M., & Ahlborn, G. (1988). Observations on the Ecology of Snow Leopard in West Nepal. In H.Freeman (Ed.), (pp. 65–87). India: Snow Leopard Trust and Wildlife Institute of India.
Abstract: This summary of a four year field study by Jackson and Ahlborn begging in 1982 and concluding in 1985, discusses behaviour, trapping and tracking techniques, home range, activity patterns, prey and habitat and survey methods.
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McCarthy, T., & Munkhtsog, B. (1997). Preliminary Assessment of Snow Leopard Sign Surveys in Mongolia. In R.Jackson, & A.Ahmad (Eds.), (pp. 57–65). Lahore, Pakistan: Islt.
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Fox, J. L., & Chundawat, R. S. (1997). Evaluation of Snow Leopard Sign Abundance in the Upper Indus Valley. In R.Jackson, & A.Ahmad (Eds.), (pp. 66–74). Lahore, Pakistan: Islt.
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Shuren, X. (1994). An introduction to feeding and management of snow leopard in Xining Zoo, China. In J.L.Fox, & D.Jizeng (Eds.), (pp. 177–182). Usa: Islt.
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Sitnikov, P. (1988). The Death of a Snow Leopard. In L.Blomqvist (Ed.), (pp. 7–8). Helsinki, Finland.
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Dhungel, S. (1994). Conservation of the Snow Leopard in Nepal. In J. L. Fox, & D. Jezing (Eds.), (pp. 47–50). Usa: Islt.
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Annenkov, B. P. (1990). The Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia) in the Dzungarsky Alatau. (pp. 21–24).
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Aramov, B. (1997). The Biology of the Snow Leopard in the Gissarsky Nature Reserve. In R. and A. A. Jackson (Ed.), (pp. 108–109). Lahore, Pakistan: Islt.
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Yanfa, L. (1994). The care, breeding and diseases of snow leopards in Qinghai, China. In J.L.Fox, & D.Jizeng (Eds.), (pp. 167–175). Usa: Islt.
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Yanfa, L. (1994). Snow leopard distribution, purchase locations and conservation in Qinghai Province, China. In J.L.Fox, & D.Jizeng (Eds.), (pp. 65–72). Usa: Islt.
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Wharton, D., & Mainka, S. A. (1994). Captive Management of the Snow Leopard. In J.L.Fox, & D.Jizeng (Eds.), (pp. 135–148). Usa: Islt.
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Tserendeleg, J. (1994). On Protection and Survey of Snow Leopards in Mongolia. In J.L.Fox, & D.Jizeng (Eds.), (pp. 43–46). Usa: Islt.
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Chundawat, R. S. (1990). Habitat Selection by a Snow Leopard in Hemis National Park, India. In L.Blomqvist (Ed.), (pp. 85–92). Helsinki, Findland: Leif Blomqvist and Helesinki Zoo.
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Ming, M., Chundawat R.S., Jumabay, K., Wu, Y., Aizeizi, Q., & Zhu, M. H. (2006). Camera trapping of snow leopards for the photo capture rate and population size in the Muzat Valley of Tianshan Mountains. Acta Theriologica Sinica, 52(4), 788–793.
Abstract: The main purpose of this work was to study the use of infrared trapping cameras to estimate snow leopard Uncia uncia population size in a specific study area. This is the first time a study of this nature has taken place in China. During 71 days of field work, a total of 36 cameras were set up in five different small vales of the Muzat Valley adjacent to the Tomur Nature Reserve in Xinjiang Province, E80ø35' – 81ø00' and N42ø00' – 42ø10', elevation 2'300 – 3'000 m, from 18th October to 27th December 2005. We expended approximately 2094 trap days and nights total (c. 50'256 hours). At least 32 pictures of snow leopards, 22 pictures of other wild species (e.g. chukor, wild pig, ibex, red fox, cape hare) and 72 pictures of livestock were taken by the passive Cam Trakker (CT) train monitor in about 16 points of the Muzat Valley. The movement distance of snow leopard was 3-10 km/day. And the capture rate or photographic rate of snow leopard was 1.53%. Meanwhile, 20 transects were run and 31 feces sample were collected. According to 32 photos, photographic rate and sign survey after snowing on the spot, were about 5-8 individuals of snow leopards in the research area, and the minimum density of snow leopard in Muzat Valley was 2.0 – 3.2 individuals/100 km2. We observed the behavior of ibex for 77.3 hours, and found about 20 groups and a total of approximately 264 ibexes in the research area.
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