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Gurung, G. T. K. (2004). Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia) and Human Interaction in Phoo Village in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal.
Abstract: Phoo village in the Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) in Nepal is located at 4,052 m als physically
in the central north of the country. Livestock keeping is the main activity of the people for making a
living amidst a conflict with snow leopard (Uncia uncia). Each year snow leopard kills a number of
livestock resulting significant economic losses for the poor people living in this remote area. Unless
the people – snow leopard conflict is well understood and appropriate conflict management activities
are implemented, the long run co-existence between people and snow leopard – especially the
existence of snow leopard in this part of the world -will be in question. This has now become an
utmost important as the aspiration of the people for economic development has risen significantly and
the area has been opened to tourism since spring 2002. In addition to this, the globalisation process has
directly and indirectly affected the traditional resource management practices and co-existence
strategies of many traditional societies including Phoo.
The livestock depredation for 3 years (2001 – 2004) by snow leopard was studied by interviewing the
herders to understand the responsible and specific bio-physical and socio-economic factors. The study
revealed that goats are most depredated species followed by sheep. Winter months (January – April)
and winter pastures are most vulnerable to snow leopard predation. Presence of bushes, forest and
boulders make good hides for snow leopard resulting into high depredation. The study also showed
that a lax animal guarding system was significantly responsible for high livestock depredation by snow
leopard.
The study showed that improvement in livestock guarding system should be adopted as the most
important activity. However despite the importance of livestock in the economy of Phoo it is still not
well understood why the herders neglect for proper livestock guarding. This requires further study.
Proper guarding system is required especially in winter season in winter pastures. It is also suggested
that there should be changes in the composition of livestock species by promoting more yaks and
discouraging or minimising goats. Yaks and large animals are less depredated and small animals like
goats and sheep are highly depredated by snow leopard. A trend was also observed in Phoo village
where there is an increase in the number of yaks and a decrease in the number of goats over last few
years. This could be a management response of the herders to livestock depredation. Other protective
measures of the livestock at the corrals have also been recommended including promotion of guard
dogs and other measures.
Since the area is opened for tourism, it is suggested that the tourism opportunity for the economic
development of the area should be grasped so that the heavy dependence on livestock raising would be
minimised. This will help minimise the number of human – snow leopard conflicts.
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Heiz A.V. (1983). Snow leopard in Kyrgyzstan and its protection (Vol. 3).
Abstract: In the year 1970, the quantity of snow leopards in Kyrgyzstan was defined as 1,300 animals, while in the years to follow 1,600 animals were recorded. A snow leopard population has significantly decreased since recently because of intense extermination of snow leopard's prey ungulates, particularly ibex. In some areas of the Kyrgyz ridge livestock is growing in number thus affecting snow leopard population. It is extremely rare that snow leopard would attack livestock. Snow leopards can be caught under special license. Educational and awareness work among shepherds and hunters residing in the mountainous area of the country needs to be improved.
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Hussain, I. (1999). Conserving Biodiversity through Institutional Diversity: Concept Paper.
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Hussain, S. Shafqat Hussain Research Proposal for Pakistan.
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Hussain, S. (2003). The status of the snow leopard in Pakistan and its conflict with local farmers (Vol. 37).
Abstract: Between 1998 and 2001 I carried out surveys in four areas in the Baltistan district of the Northern Areas of Pakistan to estimate the population of the snow leopard and to examine the threats to its future conservation. I estimate that a total of 36-50 snow leopards are present in the areas surveyed. Based on the availability of suitable snow leopard habitat and of its prey species, I estimate that 90-120 snow leopards are potentially present in Baltistan and 300-420 throughout its range within Pakistan's borders. Although this estimate is higher than extrapolations based on earlier surveys, the long-term future of the snow leopard is under threat. This is mainly due to retaliatory killings by farmers, and poaching for pelts and other body parts. Species-focused conservation policies, particularly those targeting ungulates for the promotion of trophy hunting, may constitute an additional threat to snow leopard conservation in the region. However, all forms of threats to the snow leopard in Baltistan appear to emanate from the relatively poor economic conditions of the local people.
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International Snow Leopard Trust. (1999). International Snow Leopard Trust, Conservation and Education Program for 1999.
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Jackson, R., & Ahlborn, G. (1984). A preliminary habitat suitability model for the snow leopard, Panthera uncia, in West Nepal. International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, 4, 43–52.
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Jackson, R., Ahlborn G., Ale S., Gurung D., Gurung M., & Yadav. (1994). Reducing Livestock Depredation in the Nepalese Himalaya: Case of the Annapurna Conservation Area.
Abstract: In the Nepalese Himalaya, conflict with rural communities due to livestock predation to large carnivores like snow leopard, common leopard, wolf and wild dog has risen sharply in recent years. This increase is attributed to a number of factors, including implementation and enforcement of wildlife protection laws (which have permitted a recovery in carnivore numbers), the creation of protected areas (which serve as refuges from which predators can populate the surrounding area), the depletion of natural prey due to poaching and loss of habitat, and lax livestock herding practices. However, little information is presently available upon which to design remedial programs. U.S. AID provided research funding for an in-depth assessment of snow leopard predation in the Annapurna Conservation Area (ACAP), an new innovative approach to nature conservation. Baseline information on livestock numbers and mortality were gathered during household interviews, followed by field surveys to assess animal husbandry systems, map pastures, establish periods of use and estimate stocking rates, and to characterize habitat using randomly located plots. Data substantiate the existence of depredation “hotspots”, where high loss occurs, in some cases exceeding 14% to 20% of the livestock population over a short period. Losses varied seasonally, and from year to year. Small-bodied stock like goat and sheep were more vulnerable than large-bodied stock like yak, although horses were especially vulnerable. Factors most closely associated with predation included lack of guarding (or very lax supervision), especially during the daytime, and repeated use of pastures where livestock depredators were known to be actively hunting. Herders usually reacted to repeated depredation incidents by attempting to trap or shoot the suspected culprit until losses declined to an acceptable level. As large carnivore populations become increasingly fragmented and genetically isolated, new management strategies are urgently needed, especially within the buffer zones and intervening corridors between separated parks and reserves. People reside within nearly all Himalayan protected areas, and such issues as loss of livestock and competition between wildlife and livestock cannot be avoided. A plan is offered for alleviating livestock loss in the Annapurna Conservation Area that involves local institutions in decision-making, rewards sound husbandry practices, strengthens indigenous institutions, without further eroding ACAP’s unique biological diversity and diverse carnivore population. The authors believe these measures and ideas could be fruitfully extended to other parts of the Himalaya.
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Jackson, R. (1999). Managing people-wildlife conflict in Tibet's Qomolangma National Nature Preserve.
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Jackson, R. (1999). Snow Leopards, Local People and Livestock Losses: Finding solutions using Appreciative Participatory Planning and Action (APPA) in the Markha Valley of Hemis National Park, Ladakh, October 6-26, 1999. Cat News, 31(Autumn), 22–23.
Abstract: Livestock depredation is emerging as a significant issue across the Himalaya, including the Hemis National Park (HNP) in Ladakh. Some consider that this protected area harbors the best snow leopard population in India, but local herders perceive the endangered snow leopard as a serious threat to their livelihood.
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Jackson, R. (2000). Linking Snow Leopard Conservation and People-Wildlife Conflict Resolution, Summary of a multi-country project aimed at developing grass-roots measures to protect the endangered snow leopard from herder retribution. Cat News, 33, 12–15.
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Jackson, R. (2000). The Snow Leopard Conservancy, Dedicated to demonstrating innovative, grassroots measures that lead local shepherds to become better stewards of the endangered snow leopard, its prey and habitat.
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Jackson, R. M., Ahlborn, G., Gurung, M., & Ale, S. (1996). Reducing livestock depredation losses in the Nepalese Himalaya. Proc.Vertebr.Pest Conf, 17, 241–247.
Abstract: The authors investigated livestock depredation patterns of snow leopards on the northern slopes of the Himalayans near the villages of Manang and Khangshar, Nepal. Information is discussed on the relationships among livestock loss, endangered species management, public relations/conservation issues, and cooperative efforts among institutions involved in the decision making process. A plan is devised for alleviating livestock loss and protecting endangered species in the area. pcp
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Kovshar A.F. (1985). Snow leopard. Uncia uncia.
Abstract: In the Soviet Union snow leopard inhabits highlands of Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Altai and the Sayans. In Kazakhstan, this species can be found in Jungara Alatau, Tien Shan, Tarbagatai, Saura, and Altai; formerly was seen at the Karatau ridge. It mostly preys on ibex and argali. The heat time is February April, cubs are born in May June. Its population has decrease because of the initiation of livestock grazing on mountain pastures, poaching, and wild ungulates population shrinkage. This species is protected in Aksu Jabagly and Almaty nature reserves. More nature reserves need to be established in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.
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Mallon, D. (1984). The snow leopard in Ladakh. International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, 4, 23–37.
Abstract: Reports on 1 summer survey and four winter surveys covering some 3100 km in Ladakh, India. Reports on snow leopard sign commonly found, distribution, prey, attacks on livestock and peoples reaction, mortality factors and conservation status. Suggest recomendations for preventing unnecessary killing of snow leopards and estimates population of 100 to 200 snow leopards in Ladakh
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McCarthy, T. (1999). Snow Leopard Conservation Plan for the Republic of Mongolia.
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McCarthy, T. (1999). Snow leopard conservation project, Mongolia: WWF Project Summary of Field Work.
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McCarthy, T. (2000). Snow Leopard Conservation Comes of Age.
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McCarthy, T. (2000). Snow Leopards in Mongolia.
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Mishra, C., & Bagchi, S. (2006). Living with large carnivores: predation on livestock by the snow leopard (Uncia uncia). Journal of Zoology, , 1–8.
Abstract: Livestock predation by large carnivores and their retaliatory persecution by pastoralists are worldwide conservation concerns. Poor understanding of the ecological and social underpinnings of this human-wildlife conflict hampers effective conflict management programs. The endangered snow leopard Uncia uncia is involved in conflict with people across its mountainous range in South and Central Asia, where pastoralism is the predominant land use, and is widely persecuted in retaliation. We examined human-snow leopard conflict at two sites in the Spiti region of the Indian Trans-Himalaya, where livestock outnumber wild ungulates, and the conflict is acute. We quantified the snow leopard's dependence on livestock by assessing its diet in two sites that differed in the relative abundance of livestock and wild ungulates. We also surveyed the indigenous Buddhist community's attitudes towards the snow leopard in these two sites. Our results show a relatively high dependence of snow leopards on livestock. A higher proportion of the snow leopard's diet (58%) was livestock in the area with higher livestock (29.7 animals km^2) and lower wild ungulate abundance (2.1-3.1 bharal Pseudois nayaurkm^2), compared with 40% of diet in the area with relatively lower livestock (13.9km^2) and higher wild ungulate abundance (4.5-7.8 ibex Capra ibexkm^2). We found that the community experiencing greater levels of livestock losses was comparatively more tolerant towards the snow leopard. This discrepancy is explained by the presence of a conservation-incentive program at the site, and by differences in economic roles of livestock between these two communities. The former is more dependent on cash crops as a source of income while the latter is more dependent on livestock, and thereby less tolerant of the snow leopard. These data have implications for conflict management strategies. They indicate that the relative densities of livestock and wild prey may be reasonable predictors of the extent of predation by the snow leopard. However, this by itself is not an adequate measure of the intensity of conflict even in apparently similar cultural settings.
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Mishra, C., Madhusudan, M. D., & Datta, A. (2006). Mammals of the high altitudes of western Arunachal Pradesh, eastern Himalaya: an assessment of threats and conservation needs (Vol. 40).
Abstract: The high altitudes of Arunachal Pradesh,India, located in the Eastern Himalaya biodiversity hotspot, remain zoologically unexplored and unprotected. We report results of recent mammal surveys in the high altitude habitats of western Arunachal Pradesh. A total of 35 mammal species (including 12 carnivores, 10 ungulates and 5 primates) were recorded, of which 13 are categorized as Endangered or Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. One species of primate, the Arunachal macaque Macaca munzala, is new to science and the Chinese goral Nemorhaedus caudatus is a new addition to the ungulate fauna of the Indian subcontinent. We documented peoples' dependence on natural resources for grazing and extraction of timber and medicinal plants. The region's mammals are threatened by widespread hunting. The snow leopard Uncia uncia and dhole Cuon alpinus are also persecuted in retaliation for livestock depredation. The tiger Panthera tigris, earlier reported from the lower valleys, is now apparently extinct there, and range reductions over the last two decades are reported for bharal Pseudois nayaur and musk deer Moschus sp.. Based on mammal species richness, extent of high altitude habitat, and levels of anthropogenic disturbance, we identified a potential site for the creation of Arunachal's first high altitude wildlife reserve (815 km2). Community-based efforts that provide incentives for conservation-friendly practices could work in this area, and conservation awareness programmes are required, not just amongst the local communities and schools but for politicians, bureaucrats and the army.
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Nowell, K., & Preisser, T. (1997). Saving Their Skins; Pay herders not to hunt snow leopards? Villagers laughed at first.
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Reading, R. P., Amgalanbaatar, S., Mix, H., & Lhagvasuren, B. (1997). Argali Ovis ammon surveys in Mongolia's South Gobi. Oryx, 31(4), 285–294.
Abstract: Claims poaching and competition with domestic livestock are threatening the argali's survival in Mongolia. The author's conducted aerial and ground surveys in the South Gobi and estimated a populaton size of approximately 3,900 argali.
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Schaller, G. (1986). Surveys of Mountain Wildlife in China, Report # 4.
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Schaller, G. (1987). Surveys of Mountain Wildlife in China, Report # 6.
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