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Shrestha, R., & Wegge, P. (2006). Determining the composition of herbivore diets in the Trans-Himalayan rangelands: A comparison of field methods. Journal of Rangeland Ecology and Management, 59(5), 512–518.
Abstract: In late summer, in a semi-arid mountain range in Nepal, we compared 3 field methods for determining the botanical composition of herbivore diets. Data were collected from the same animals belonging to 1 herd of domestic yak (Bos grunniens) and 2 herds of mixed smallstock, consisting of domestic goats (Capra hircus) and sheep (Ovis aries). Bite count, feeding site examination, and microhistological analysis of feces gave different estimates of forage categories and plant species in both animal groups. Because yaks grazed in other vegetation communities when not observed for bite-counts and feeding signs, the results from the latter methods could not be compared directly with that from fecal analysis. In smallstock, feeding site examination gave higher estimates of graminoids and lower estimates of shrubs than the other 2 methods, probably because all feeding signs on shrubs were not detected. Bite-counts and fecal analysis gave comparable results, except that forbs were underestimated by fecal analysis, presumably due to their more complete digestion. Owing to the difficulty in collecting samples that are representative of the entire grazing period and the problem of recording feeding signs correctly, both feeding site examination and bite-counts are unsuitable methods for studying the food habits of free ranging domestic and wild herbivores. Microhistological analysis of feces appears to be the most appropriate method, but correction factors are needed to adjust for differential digestion. The systematic use of photomicrographs improves the speed and accuracy of the fecal analysis.
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Saberwal, V. K. (1996). Pastoral Politics:gaddi grazing, degradation and biodiversity conservation in Himachal Pradesh, India. Conservation Biology, 10, 741–749.
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Sharma, R. K., Sharma, K., Borchers, D., Bhatnagar, Y. V., Suryawanshi, K. S., Mishra, C. (2020). Spatial variation in population-density, movement and detectability of snow leopards in
2 a multiple use landscape in Spiti Valley, Trans-Himalaya. bioRxiv, .
Abstract: The endangered snow leopard Panthera uncia occurs in human use landscapes in the mountains of South and Central Asia. Conservationists generally agree that snow leopards must be conserved through a land-sharing approach, rather than land-sparing in the form of strictly protected areas. Effective conservation through land-sharing requires a good understanding of how snow leopards respond to human use of the landscape. Snow leopard density is expected to show spatial variation within a landscape because of variation in the intensity of human use and the quality of habitat. However, snow leopards have been difficult to enumerate and monitor. Variation in the density of snow leopards remains undocumented, and the impact of human use on their populations is poorly understood. We examined spatial variation in snow leopard density in Spiti Valley, an important snow leopard landscape in India, via spatially explicit capture recapture analysis of camera trap data. We camera trapped an area encompassing a minimum convex polygon of 953 km . We estimated an overall density of 0.49 (95% CI: 0.39-0.73) adult snow leopards per 100 km . Using AIC, our best model showed the density of snow leopards to depend on wild prey density, movement about activity centres to depend on altitude, and the expected number of encounters at the activity centre to depend on topography. Models that also used livestock biomass as a density covariate ranked second, but the effect of livestock was weak. Our results highlight the importance of maintaining high density pockets of wild prey populations in multiple use landscapes to enhance snow leopard conservation.
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Fox, J. L. (1989). A review of the status and ecology of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia).
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Jain, N., Wangchuk, R., & Jackson, R. (2003). An Assessment of CBT and Homestay Sites in Spiti District, Himachal Pradesh.
Abstract: The survey described in this report builds upon prior CBT activities undertaken by The Mountain Institute (TMI) in partnership with the Snow Leopard Conservancy (SLC) in Ladakh, supported by a grant from UNESCO (with co-financing from SLC). Under the evolving concept of “Himalayan Homestays”, initially developed and tested in Ladakh, it is proposed that activities be expanded to selected states in India in a strategic and effective way. Himalayan Homestays are part of a larger integrated program to link snow leopard conservation with local livelihoods in Asia.
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Jackson, R. (1992). SSC Plan for Snow Leopard.
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Suryawanshi, K., K. (2011). Sunshine and the Shadow. Hornbill, (April-June), 34–37.
Abstract: Kulbhushansingh Suryawanshi shares an update on his blog which describes snow leopard sightings in Spiti, Himachal Pradesh, while studying the foraging behavior and eating habits of blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur).
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Maheshwari, A., Sharma, D. (2010). Snow leopard conservation in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh.
Abstract: The Greater and Trans Himalayan regions of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh have great potential in terms of wildlife (flora and fauna). This survey was the first ever survey for the snow leopard in Uttarakhand and some of the areas of Himachal Pradesh till date. It confirms the presence of snow leopard in Uttarakhand on the basis of indirect evidence. We could not find any evidence of snow leopard from surveyed areas in Himachal Pradesh – but it certainly does not mean that there are no snow leopards in the surveyed areas.
Areas above 3000m elevation were selected for this survey in 10 protected areas of both the states. Status and distribution of snow leopard was assessed through indirect evidence (n=13) found between 3190 and 4115m. On average, one indirect evidence of snow leopard was found for every 39km walked. About 39% of the evidence was found on the hill-slope followed by valley floor (30%), cliff (15%) and 8% from both stream bed and scree slope. Preferred mean slope was 28° (maximum 60°). Snow leopard-human conflicts were assessed through questionnaire surveys from Govind Pashu Vihar, Askot Wild Life Sanctuary and Dung (Munsiari) areas. They revealed that livestock depredation is the only component of conflict and contributed to 36% of the total diet (mule, goat and sheep) of snow leopard. Blue sheep and rodents together comprised 36.4% of the total diet.
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Xu, F., Ming, M., Yin, S. -jing, & Mardan. (2005). Snow Leopard Survey in Tumor Nature Reserve, Xingjiang (Vol. 24).
Abstract: Snow leopard survey was conducted in Oct-Nov 2004 at Tumor National Natural Reserve, Xinjiang, China. Because of its special living style, the snow leopard is difficult to observe by sight. Signs left by snow leopard become a good index to prove the existance of the big cat. There are mainly five kinds of signs, footprints, fectes, claw rakes and urine spray. From them we can know the distribution, probably population and habitat selection of snow leopard. This time in Tumor we investigated 5 difference places: Pochenzi in Mozat River area, Boxidun in Little Kuzbay River area, Yinyer in Tomur River area, Kurgan and Taglak in Quiong Tailan River area. 42 transects were run in this trip and a total of 57 signs found. Among them, footprints amounted to 71.9%, scrapes 21.1%, and feces 7.0%. The results showed that the big cat existed in Yinyer, Kurgan and Taglak areas and liked to select their habitat in the valley and didn't like to live in barren areas.
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Xu, F., Ma, M., & Wu, Y. - Q. (2006). Winter Daily Activity Rhythm and Time Budget of Ibex(Capra ibex).
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Yanushevich A.I. (1972). Mammals of Kyrgyzstan.
Abstract: A description of snow leopard, its taxonomy, distribution, habitat, number, behavior, food, reproduction, parasites, infections, and practical importance is given. In Kyrgyzstan, irbis was found in the Chatkal, Kyrgyz, Talas ridges, and Terskei Alatoo. An official annual snow leopard hunting rate ranged from 10 (1955) to 54 skins (in 1936) in 1930-s through 1950-s. 17 snow leopards were caught for the purpose of zoo-export only in 1965-1966. Its skin has no special value and is used by local people for decoration of dwellings and making collars.
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Zakhidov T.Z. (1960). Irbis (Felis uncia) Ilvrs.
Abstract: The author provides information about snow leopard taxonomy, distribution, habitat and appearance. Biology of this animal is understudied. Snow leopard is able to make long jumps. It feeds upon ibex, wild sheep, marmots, partridge, and sometimes livestock, but never man. Gestation period is three months, at the end of May female gives birth to two or three cubs. Being very occasional, purchase of skin is of no practical value.
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Zakhidov T.Z.Meklenburtsev R.N., B. O. P. (1971). Snow leopard Uncia uncia Schreb. Distribution of fauna elements over Central Asia (Vol. Vol. 2. Vertebrate animals.).
Abstract: Snow leopard inhabits the mountainous ecosystems from Tarbagatai to Hissar and Pamir. It feeds upon large animals such as ibex, argali, roe deer, and sometimes domestic sheep, rodents, and birds (most frequently snow cock). The skin of this animal is not of significant value and is rarely an item of trade. In many countries, zoos will readily buy snow leopards. There is no danger for a man to catch snow leopard since even being wounded during a hunt, the animal would never attack the man. An encounter with snow leopard in the mountains will always end safely for human being, as it is always first to spot a man and go away unnoticed.
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Zhirnov L.V. (1978). Rare and endangered species of the USSR.
Abstract: A description of snow leopard number, distribution, reproductive biology, death reasons, and conservation measures in the USSR, where northern and north-western border of its habitat runs, is given. The population of snow leopard in the USSR is 500 1,000 animals. In the Inner Tien Shan, 400 snow leopards were caught 1936 through 1970. The maximum of 120 skins was purchased in Pamir in 1956 1958. Population of snow leopard directly correlates with population of ibex, a fact being verified by data collected on a long-term basis. Moreover, snow leopard was for a long time considered as a harmful animal, shooting of which was encouraged by premiums and resulted in reduction of snow leopard population.
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Johnsingh, A. J. T. (2006). A roadmap for conservation in Uttaranchal.
Abstract: The enchanting state of Uttaranchal, carved out of Uttar Pradesh on 9th November 2000, has a total area of ca. 53,485 km2 with a population density of 160 persons/ km2, much lower than the national average of 324/km2. This young state can take pride in the fact that 13.42% of its area is under protected areas. The state has varied landscapes: snow-capped and conifer forest covered mountains in the north, forest covered foothills with numerous perennial rivers and streams, locally known as the bhabar tract which includes the Himalayan foothills and the Shivalik range. As a result, the land is home to a variety of fascinating wildlife such as the golden mahseer (Tor putitora), king cobra (Ophiophagus hanna), Himalayan monal (Lophophorus impejanus), great hornbill (Buceros bicornis), Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), bharal (Pseudois nayaur), Himalayan musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster), goral (Nemorhaedus goral), elephant (Elephas maximus), snow leopard (Panthera uncia), leopard (P. pardus), black bear (Ursus thibetanus), and tiger (P. tigris). All across their range, most of these species are endangered. The potential of this state, with about 800 kilometers of riverine habitat, can only be surpassed by Arunachal Pradesh in terms of golden mahseer conservation. The mountains, bedecked with the scarlet flowers of rhododendron (Rhododendron arboreum) in the summer months, can be a veritable home to many forms of pheasants, mountain ungulates and carnivores, provided poaching for trade is eliminated and hunting for the pot is brought under control. The bhabar forests of this state, ca. 7,500 km2, extending between Yamuna and Sharda rivers (Fig. 1.), can easily support a population of about 1000 elephants and 200 tigers as long as this large habitat, now fragmented in three blocks, is managed and protected as one continuous habitat for wildlife. Six villages, gujjar settlements and encroachments need to be moved away from the main wildlife habitat which goes along the bhabar tract. Although the conservation of these habitats can eventually bring in immense benefits through well-planned ecotourism programmes that are rapidly catching up in the state, initial conservation efforts would need a substantial amount of funds.
Keywords: carnivores, conservation, forest, habitat, hunting, landscape, Panthera uncia, poaching, snow leopard, species, tiger, Uncia uncia, ungulates, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal
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Fox, J. L., Sinha, S.P., Chundawat, R.S. (1992). Activity patterns and habitat use of ibex in the Himalaya mountains of India. Journal of Mammology, 73(3), 527–534.
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Trivedi, P. (2011). From Cashmere to Gowa. Journal of East China Normal University (Special Issue of Zoology)nbill, (April-June), 4–10.
Abstract: Story of research trip looking for Tibetan Gazelle (Procapra picticaudata) in its last stronghold in India – Kalak Tar Tar (KTT) plateau in the Hanle area of hangthang – the great Tibetan high altitude plain that stretches at its extreme south-western and southeastern edges into India in Ladakh and Sikkim respectively. Species is known locally as “gowa”.
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Schaller, G. B. (1987). Status of large mammals in the Taxkorgan Reserve, Xinjiang, China. Biological-Conservation, 42(1), 53–71.
Abstract: A status survey of large mammals was conducted in the W half of 14 000 km“SUP 2” Taxkorgan Reserve. Only one viable population of fewer than 150 Marco Polo sheep Ovis ammon poli survives; it appears to be augmented by adult males from Russia and Afghanistan during the winter rut. Asiatic ibex Capra ibex occur primarily in the western part of the reserve and blue sheep Pseudois nayaur – the most abundant wild ungulate – in the E and SE parts. The 2 species overlap in the area of contact. Counts revealed an average wild ungulate density of 0.34 animals km“SUP -2”. Snow leopard Panthera uncia were rare, with possibly 50-75 in the reserve, as were wolves Canis lupus and brown bear Ursus arctos. The principal spring food of snow leopard was blue sheep (60%) and marmot (29%). Local people have greatly decimated wildlife. Overgrazing by livestock and overuse of shrubs for fuelwood is turning this arid steppe habitat into desert. -from Authors
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Jackson. R. (2012). Fostering Community-Based Stewardship of Wildlife in Central Asia: Transforming Snow Leopards from Pests into Valued Assets. In Springer Science and Business Media (pp. 357–380).
Abstract: Book Title: Rangeland Stewardship in Central Asia: Balancing Improved Livelihoods, Biodiversity Conservation and Land Protection, 2012. Edited by Victor Squires. Published Springer Science+Business Media. 458 p. 91 illus., 61 in color.
Addressing human–wildlife conflict is an important requisite to managing
rangelands for livestock and wildlife. Despite high altitudes, aridity, and relatively
low primary productivity, the rangelands of Central Asia support a rich and diverse
biodiversity—including the endangered snow leopard that many herders perceive
as a predator to be eliminated. Conserving this and other wildlife species requires
carefully crafted interventions aimed at curbing depredation losses and/or reducing
competition for forage, along with offering locally sustainable, environmentally
friendly income-generating activities for supplementing pastoral household livelihoods.
This is best achieved through a combination of incentives designed to foster
sound rangeland and wildlife stewardship, along penalties or disincentives targeting
herders who violate mutually agreed rules and regulations (including grazing norms
and wildlife disturbance or poaching).
When working toward the harmonious coexistence of people and wildlife,
conservationists and rangeland practitioners need to seek the cooperation and
build goodwill among herders and other stakeholders, including local government
and private industry (especially the livestock production, mining, and tourism
sectors).
Keywords: Gurvan Saikhan National Park,Annapurna National Park,Nepal,Pakistan,India,Mongolia,China,Tibet,Mining,Poaching,PRA,Holistic,Community engagement,Fuel,Habitat fragmentation
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Suryawanshi, K. R., Bhatnagar, Y. V. B., Redpath, S., Mishra, C. (2013). People, predators and perceptions: patterns of livestock depredation by snow leopards and wolves. Journal of Applied Ecology, 50, 550–560.
Abstract: 1. Livestock depredation by large carnivores is an important conservation and economic concern
and conservation management would benefit from a better understanding of spatial variation
and underlying causes of depredation events. Focusing on the endangered snow leopard
Panthera uncia and the wolf Canis lupus, we identify the ecological factors that predispose
areas within a landscape to livestock depredation. We also examine the potential mismatch
between reality and human perceptions of livestock depredation by these carnivores whose
survival is threatened due to persecution by pastoralists.
2. We assessed the distribution of the snow leopard, wolf and wild ungulate prey through field
surveys in the 4000 km2 Upper Spiti Landscape of trans-Himalayan India. We interviewed local
people in all 25 villages to assess the distribution of livestock and peoples’ perceptions of the risk
to livestock from these carnivores. We monitored village-level livestock mortality over a 2-year
period to assess the actual level of livestock depredation. We quantified several possibly influential
independent variables that together captured variation in topography, carnivore abundance
and abundance and other attributes of livestock. We identified the key variables influencing livestock
depredation using multiple logistic regressions and hierarchical partitioning.
3. Our results revealed notable differences in livestock selectivity and ecological correlates of
livestock depredation – both perceived and actual – by snow leopards and wolves. Stocking
density of large-bodied free-ranging livestock (yaks and horses) best explained people’s threat
perception of livestock depredation by snow leopards, while actual livestock depredation was
explained by the relative abundance of snow leopards and wild prey. In the case of wolves,
peoples’ perception was best explained by abundance of wolves, while actual depredation by
wolves was explained by habitat structure.
4. Synthesis and applications. Our results show that (i) human perceptions can be at odds
with actual patterns of livestock depredation, (ii) increases in wild prey populations will intensify
livestock depredation by snow leopards, and prey recovery programmes must be accompanied
by measures to protect livestock, (iii) compensation or insurance programmes should
target large-bodied livestock in snow leopard habitats and (iv) sustained awareness
programmes are much needed, especially for the wolf.
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Maheshwari, A., Midha, N., Chehrukupalli, A. (2014). Participatory Rural Appraisal and Compensation Intervention: Challenges and Protocols While Managing Large Carnivore–Human Conflict. Human Dimensions of Wildlife: An International Journal, 19, 62–71.
Abstract: When large carnivores cause socioeconomic losses in a community, conflict increases,
retaliatory killing of the carnivore can occur, and conservation efforts are undermined.
We focused on Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and economic compensation
schemes as approaches for managing conflict. PRA is a tool for collecting data on
the large carnivore–human conflict and economic compensation schemes for those
affected negatively by carnivore presence. We reviewed published papers and reports
on large carnivore–human conflicts, PRA, and compensation schemes. This article
details insights into common pitfalls, key lessons learned, possible solutions including
new approaches for compensation and protocols to be followed while managing large
carnivore–human conflict. We hope to contribute to a meaningful dialogue between
locals, managers, and researchers and help in effective implementation of conservation
programs to mitigate large carnivore–human conflict around the protected areas.
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Taubmann, J., Sharma, K., Uulu, K Z., Hines, J. E., Mishra, C. (2015). Status assessment of the Endangered snow leopard Panthera uncia and other large mammals in the Kyrgyz Alay, using community knowledge corrected for imperfect detection. Fauna & Flora International, , 1–11.
Abstract: The Endangered snow leopard Panthera uncia occurs
in the Central Asian Mountains, which cover c.  million
km. Little is known about its status in the Kyrgyz Alay
Mountains, a relatively narrow stretch of habitat connecting
the southern and northern global ranges of the species. In
 we gathered information on current and past (,
the last year of the Soviet Union) distributions of snow leopards
and five sympatric large mammals across , km
of the Kyrgyz Alay.We interviewed  key informants from
local communities. Across  -km grid cells we obtained
, and  records of species occurrence (site
use) in  and , respectively. The data were analysed
using themulti-season site occupancy framework to incorporate
uncertainty in detection across interviewees and time
periods. High probability of use by snow leopards in the past
was recorded in .% of the Kyrgyz Alay. Between the two
sampling periods % of sites showed a high probability of
local extinction of snow leopard. We also recorded high
probability of local extinction of brown bear Ursus arctos
(% of sites) and Marco Polo sheep Ovis ammon polii
(% of sites), mainly in regions used intensively by people.
Data indicated a high probability of local colonization by
lynx Lynx lynx in % of the sites. Although wildlife has
declined in areas of central and eastern Alay, regions in
the north-west, and the northern and southern fringes
appear to retain high conservation value.
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Michel, S., Michel, T. R., Saidov, A., Karimov, K., Alidodov, M., Kholmatov, I. Population status of Heptner’s markhor Capra falconeri heptneri in Tajikistan: challenges for conservation. Flora & Fauna International, , 1–8.
Abstract: Heptner’s markhor Capra falconeri heptneri is an Endangered wild goat occurring in disjunct populations in southern Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. Surveys to determine the total population in Tajikistan were conducted during February–April 2012. A total of 1,018 animals were observed. In most areas, which include state protected areas and family- and communitybased
conservancies, markhor populations are stable or increasing. Threats include illegal hunting, habitat degradation, competition with livestock and disease transmission. To motivate conservancies economically to protect markhor populations, trophy hunting should be permitted to accommodate the sustainable use of markhor, with revenues distributed in a transparent and equitably shared manner.
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Hanson, J. H., Schutgens, M., Baral, N. What explains tourists support for snow leopard conservation in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal? Human Dimensions of Wildlife, , 1–15.
Abstract: Wildlife tourism is increasingly important for the conservation of
threatened species such as snow leopards. However, what tourists
know or value about snow leopards, and to what extent they support
the conservation of this species, has received limited empirical attention.
This paper investigates tourist knowledge about snow leopards,
beliefs and values toward the species, and support for its conservation
in the Annapurna Conservation Area of Nepal. Survey data were
collected from 406 foreign tourists between March and May 2014.
Although knowledge about snow leopards varied among respondents,
there was widespread support for their conservation.
Knowledge about snow leopards was best explained by education
level and environmental organization membership. Improved knowledge
about the species, and a variety of intrinsic conservation values,
were found to increase tourist support for snow leopard conservation.
These results provide important insights to help tailor tourism
initiatives to support the conservation of snow leopards.
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Salvatori, M., Tenan, S., Oberosler, V., Augugliaro, C., Christe, P., Groff, C., Krofel, M., Zimmermann, F., Rovero, F. (2021). Co-occurrence of snow leopard, wolf and Siberian ibex under livestock encroachment into protected areas across the Mongolian Altai. Biological Conservatio, 261(109294), 1–14.
Abstract: In countries such as Mongolia, where globalization of the cashmere market has spurred herders to massively increase their livestock numbers, an important conservation concern is the effect of livestock encroachment on wildlife. This is especially important inside protected areas (PAs), which often represent the last refugia for threatened large mammals. We used camera-traps to sample four areas with different protection status across the Mongolian Altai Mountains, and targeted a predator-prey system composed of livestock, one large herbivore, the Siberian ibex, and two large carnivores, the snow leopard and the wolf. To determine the effect of livestock on habitat use by the wild species and their spatio-temporal co-occurrence we applied an occupancy framework explicitly developed for modelling interacting species. We recorded a widespread presence of domestic animals in the PAs, and observed avoidance of sites used by livestock by snow leopard and ibex, while wolves tended to co-occur with it. Snow leopard and ibex showed clear mutual co-occurrence, indicating a tight predator-prey relationship. Results provide evidence that, at the scale of sites sampled primarily to maximise snow leopard detections, grazing livestock interferes with wild species by inducing avoidance in snow leopards, and attraction in wolves. We suggest that (1) PAs management should enforce real grazing limitations on the ground, especially in the core areas of the parks; (2) new policies incorporating wildlife conservation into government subsidies to pastoralists should be envisaged, to prevent increasing displacement of snow leopards and ibex; (3) as wolves co- occurred with livestock, with the potential for human-wildlife conflicts, we encourage the use of a set of prevention techniques to mitigate livestock depredation.
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