Filla, M., Lama, R. P., Filla, T., Heurich, M., Balkenhol, N., Waltert, M., Khorozyan, I. (2022). Patterns of livestock depredation by snow leopards and effects of intervention strategies: lessons from the Nepalese Himalaya. Wildlife Research, .
Abstract: Context: Large carnivores are increasingly threatened by anthropogenic activities, and their protection is among the main goals of biodiversity conservation. The snow leopard (Panthera uncia) inhabits high-mountain landscapes where livestock depredation drives it into conflicts with local people and poses an obstacle for its conservation.
Aims: The aim of this study was to identify the livestock groups most vulnerable to depredation, target them in implementation of practical interventions, and assess the effectiveness of intervention strategies for conflict mitigation. We present a novel attempt to evaluate intervention strategies for particularly vulnerable species, age groups, time, and seasons.
Methods: In 2020, we conducted questionnaire surveys in two regions of the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal (Manang, n = 146 respondents and Upper Mustang, n = 183). We applied sample comparison testing, Jacobs’ selectivity index, and generalised linear models (GLMs) to assess rates and spatio-temporal heterogeneity of depredation, reveal vulnerable livestock groups, analyse potential effects of applied intervention strategies, and identify husbandry factors relevant to depredation.
Key results: Snow leopard predation was a major cause of livestock mortality in both regions (25.4–39.8%), resulting in an estimated annual loss of 3.2–3.6% of all livestock. The main intervention strategies (e.g. corrals during night-time and herding during daytime) were applied inconsistently and not associated with decreases in reported livestock losses. In contrast, we found some evidence that dogs, deterrents (light, music playing, flapping tape, and dung burning), and the use of multiple interventions were associated with a reduction in reported night-time depredation of yaks.
Conclusions and implications: We suggest conducting controlled randomised experiments for quantitative assessment of the effectiveness of dogs, deterrents, and the use of multiple interventions, and widely applying the most effective ones in local communities. This would benefit the long-term co-existence of snow leopards and humans in the Annapurna region and beyond.
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Moheb, Z., Fuller, T. K., Zahler, P. I. (2022). Snow Leopard – human conflict as a conservation challenge – a review. Snow Leopard Reports, 1, 11–24.
Abstract: Human conflict with large carnivores continues to be a great conservation challenge, and conflict with snow leopards (Panthera uncia) has been studied to understand causes and propose mitigation schemes. While the nature of snow leopard-human conflict is similar in most cases, reported studies have been case- and area-specific with mitigation strategies not necessarily based on a synthesis of relevant literature. We reviewed snow leopard literature published from 1970-2020 to identify the main drivers of human-snow leopard conflict (HSLC) and describe conservation and conflict mitigation strategies commonly employed. Based on 47 relevant peer-reviewed articles, review papers, book chapters, project reports, and other grey literature, we identified four major conflict domains: livestock management-related, socio-economic/human-related, ecological, and policy-related. Most articles suggested more than one conflict mitigation scheme. Three conflict mitigation domains – preventive, supportive, and compensatory – were widely reflected in the snow leopard-human conflict literature. The most commonly reported mitigation schemes included: 1) building or predator-proofing corrals; 2) training shepherds and improving livestock guarding; 3) livestock insurance schemes; 4) compensation for livestock predation; 5) capacity building, education, and awareness programs; and 6) improved breeding and use of guard dogs. Future management efforts need to tailor their approach depending on cultural, economic, and ecological circumstances.
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Rashid, W., Shi, J., Rahim, I. U., Dong, S., Ahmad, L. (2020). Research trends and management options in human-snow leopard conflict. Biological Conservation, 242(108413), 1–10.
Abstract: Conservation of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) is challenging because of its threatened status and increase in human-snow leopard conflict (HSC). The area of occupancy of the snow leopard comprises mountainous regions of Asia that are confronted with various environmental pressures including climate change. HSCs have increased with a burgeoning human population and economic activities that enhance competition between human and snow leopard or its preys. Here we systematically review the peer-reviewed literature from 1994 to 2018 in Web of Science, Google Scholar, Science Direct and PubMed (30 articles), to evaluate the current state of scholarship about HSCs and their management. We determine: 1) the spatio-temporal distribution of relevant researches; 2) the methodologies to assess HSCs; 3) and evaluate existing interventions for conflict management; and 4) the potential options for HSC management. The aim of the current study is thus to identify key research gaps and future research requirements. Of the articles in this review, 60% evaluated the mitigation of HSCs, while only 37% provided actionable and decisive results. Compensation programs and livestock management strategies had high success rates for mitigating HSCs through direct or community-managed interventions. Further research is required to evaluate the efficacy of existing HSC mitigation strategies, many of which, while recommended, lack proper support. In spite of the progress made in HSC studies, research is needed to examine ecological and sociocultural context of HSCs. We suggest future work focus on rangeland management for HSC mitigation, thus ultimately fostering a co-existence between human and snow leopard.
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Arias, M., Coals, P., Ardiantiono, Elves-Powell, J., Rizzolo, J. B., Ghoddousi, A., Boron, V., da Silva, M., Naude, V., Williams, V., Poudel, S., Loveridge, A., Payan, E., Suryawanshi, K., Dickman, A. (2024). Reflecting on the role of human-felid conflict and local use in big cat trade. Conservation Science and Practice, 6(e13030), 1–7.
Abstract: Illegal trade in big cat (Panthera spp.) body parts is a prominent topic in scientific and public discourses concerning wildlife conservation. While illegal trade is generally acknowledged as a threat to big cat species, we suggest that two enabling factors have, to date, been under-considered. To that end, we discuss the roles of human-felid conflict, and “local” use in illegal trade in big cat body parts. Drawing examples from across species and regions, we look at generalities, contextual subtleties, ambiguities, and definitional complexities. We caution against underestimating the extent of “local” use of big cats and highlight the potential of conflict killings to supply body parts.
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Pathak, A., Lamichhane, S., Dhakal, M., Karki, A., Dhakal, B. D., Chetri, M., Mintz, J., Pun, P., Neupane, P., Dahal, T. P., Rayamajhi, T., Paudel, P., Thapa, A., Regmi, P. R., Thami, S., Thapa, G., Khanal, S., Lama, S., Karki, J., Khanal, S., Ferdin, A. E. J. (2024). Human-wildlife conflict at high altitude: A case from Gaurishankar conservation area, Nepal. Ecology and Evolution, 14(e11685), 1–9.
Abstract: Human–wildlife conflict studies of high-altitude areas are rare due to budget constraints and the challenging nature of research in these remote environments. This study investigates the prevalence and increasing trend of human–wildlife conflict (HWC) in the mountainous Gaurishankar Conservation Area (GCA) of Nepal, with a specific focus on leopard (Panthera pardus) and Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibetanus laniger). The study analyzes a decade of HWC reports and identifies goats as the livestock most targeted by leopards. The Dolakha district of GCA received the highest number of reports, highlighting the need for mitigation measures in the area. In GCA, livestock attacks accounted for 85% of compensation, with the remaining 15% for human injuries. We estimate that the number of reported wildlife attacks grew on average by 33% per year, with an additional increase of 57 reports per year following the implementation of a new compensation policy during BS 2076 (2019 AD). While bear attacks showed no significant change post-rule alteration, leopard attack reports surged from 1 to 60 annually, indicating improved compensation may have resulted in increased leopard-attack reporting rates. The findings emphasize the economic impact of HWC on local communities and suggest strategies such as increasing prey populations, promoting community education and awareness, enhancing alternative livelihood options, developing community-based insurance programs, and implementing secure enclosures (corrals) to minimize conflicts and foster harmonious coexistence. This research addresses a knowledge gap in HWC in high- altitude conservation areas like the GCA, providing valuable insights for conservation stakeholders and contributing to biodiversity conservation and the well-being of humans and wildlife.
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Alexander, J. S., Christe, P., Zimmermann, F. (2024). Return of the Eurasian lynx: using local stakeholder knowledge and experiences to inform lynx conservation in the French Alps. Oryx, , 1–9.
Abstract: Large carnivore conservation in human-dominated landscapes is a complex issue, often marked by the stark contrast between those who hold deep-rooted animosity towards these animals and those who welcome their presence. The survival of the Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx in Europe relies on effective coexistence with humans in multi-use areas. We explored the experiences and perceptions of local hunters and pastoralists regarding the return of the lynx to the Giffre Valley, France, and mapped lynx distribution based on the probability of site use while accounting for detection probability. We conducted in-depth interviews with 29 respondents to gather data on lynx sightings, rationale for hunting and pastoralism, and perceptions of lynxes. We found that 45% of respondents had detected lynxes in the last 40 years, with an estimated site use of 0.66 ± SE 0.33 over the last decade, indicating there was a 66% probability of lynxes using the sites during that time period. Our results suggest that hunting and pastoralism in the region are rooted in a desire to carry on local traditions and connect with the natural world. Respondents generally tolerated the presence of lynxes, perceiving few threats to their livelihoods and activities, and expressing a willingness to coexist peacefully. However, some identified future challenges that could arise with the return of large carnivores to the valley and highlighted scenarios that could lead to a decline in tolerance. This study emphasizes the valuable knowledge of local hunters and pastoralists and their potential role in lynx population monitoring and conservation. Integrating stakeholder values in decision- making processes is crucial for inclusive and sustainable responses to promote biodiversity.
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Zhang, Y., Dai, Y., Li, J., Cong, W., Zhang, Y., Nie, X., Wu, Q., Xue, Y. (2025). Climate Change and Human Pressure: Assessing the Vulnerability of Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia) Habitat Integrated With Prey Distribution on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Ecology and Evolution, , 1–15.
Abstract: Climate change is significantly altering the distribution of large carnivores and their primary prey species, with particular emphasis on the changing prey distribution in high- altitude regions. The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, known for its rich biodiversity, is highly sensitive to climate change, affecting the habitats of snow leopards (Panthera uncia) and blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur). Our study identified blue sheep as the primary prey of snow leopards through metagenomic analysis and used bioclimatic data and Land Use/Cover Change (LUCC) information to model habitat suitability under three climate scenarios (RCP 2.6, RCP 4.5, and RCP 8.5). Projections showed that under RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5, snow leopard habitats will decrease by 13.0% and 23.4%, while blue sheep habitats will decrease by 38.3% and 49.7%, respectively. These habitats are expected to shift to higher altitudes, with snow leopards experiencing a more significant shift. Based on these findings, we recommend adjusting protected area boundaries for S1 (Ideal distribution range), establishing ecological corridors for S2 (stepping stone), and implementing targeted measures to mitigate human-wildlife conflicts in S3 (potential conflict area). To protect these species, international efforts to reduce carbon emissions, cross- administrative cooperation, and community-based conservation strategies are essential.
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Bobrinskiy N.A. (1938). Preditors (Carnivora). The mountains of Central Asia. 1938.
Abstract: It describes fauna of the Tien Shan, Pamir and Hissar mountains of Central Asia. The mountains of Central Asia. Ibex (Capra sibirica) and snow leopard (Uncia uncia) are listed among other inhabitants of highlands in Tien Shan and Pamir Hissar.
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Schaller, G. B. (1977). Mountain Monarchs: Wild Sheep and Goats of the Himalaya (Wildlife Behavior & Ecology). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Abstract: Describes snow leopard status and field observations from studies in Pakistan and Nepal. Review provides some data on snow leopard marking behavior, social relations, food habits and predator behavior.
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Nath, A. (1982). Some observations on wildlife in the Upper Suru/Northern Zanskar/Markha Valley of Ladakh. In L. Blomqvist (Ed.), International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, Vol. 3 (Vol. 3, pp. 11–24). Helsinki: Helsinki Zoo.
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