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Wahlberg, C., Tarkkanen, A., & Blomqvist, L. (1982). Further observations on the multiple ocular coloboma (MOC) in the snow leopard, Panthers uncia. In L. Blomqvist (Ed.), International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards (Vol. 3, pp. 139–144). Helsinki: Helsinki Zoo.
Abstract: The first observation of the occurrence of multiple ocular coloboma (MOC) in a snow leopard was reported in the International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards Volume I in 1978 (1). The lesions in this syndrome consist of coloboma of the upper eye lid and uveal coloboma of the globe. Even colobomatous retinal cysts and retinal dysplasia have been noted. The ethiology of in all ten cases of MOC in the snow leopards kept at the Helsinki Zoo were described and discussed in detail in Volume II of the International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards (2,3). Three cases of MOC in the snow leopards kept at Henry Doorly Zoo, Omaha, Ne., have been described by Phillips (4), one case is known of in Amsterdam (van Bree, personal communication), and two cases in Zoo Zurich (Isenbugel and Weilenmann, pers. comm.) The ethiology of the defect is still not known although various theories ranging from genetic to exogenous factors have been presented.
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Flora and Fauna International. (2006). Central Asia Snow Leopard Workshop. Author.
Abstract: Meeting report for the Central Asia Snow Leopard Workshop, held in Bishkek in June 2006.
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Ahmad, A., Rawat, J. S., & Rai, S. C. (1990). An Analysis of the Himalayan Environment and Guidelines for its Management and Ecologically Sustainable Development. Environmentalist, 10(4), 281–298.
Abstract: The impacts of human activities on the bio-geophysical and socio-economic environment of the Himalayas are analysed. The main man-induced activities which have accelerated ecological degradation and threatened the equilibrium of Himalayan mountain ecosystems are stated as: unplanned land use, cultivation on steep slopes, overgrazing, major engineering activities, over-exploitation of village or community forests, lopping of broad leaved plant species, shifting cultivation (short cycle) in north-east India, tourism and recreation. The geomorphological conditions are major factors responsible for landslides which cause major havoc every year in the area. Wild fauna, like musk deer and the snow leopard are now under threat partially due to changes in their habitat and the introduction of exotic plant species. Population pressure and migration are major factors responsible for poverty in the hills. The emigration of the working male population has resulted in the involvement of women as a major work-force. Guidelines, with special emphasis on the application of environmental impact assessments for the management of the Himalayas, are proposed. -from Authors
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Hanson, J. H. Household Conflicts with Snow Leopard Conservation and Impacts from Snow Leopards in the Everest and Annapurna Regions of Nepal. Environmental Management, , 1 of 12.
Abstract: Impacts on households from large carnivores are frequently reported in the conservation literature, but conflicts between households and large carnivore conservation are not. Employing a human-wildlife coexistence framework that distinguishes between human-wildlife impacts on one hand, and human-conservation conflicts on the other, this paper presents data from Annapurna Conservation Area and Sagarmatha (Everest) National Park, Nepal, each with different models of conservation governance. Using systematic sampling, quantitative information from 705 households was collected via questionnaires, while 70 semi-structured interviews were conducted with key informants for cross-methods triangulation. 7.7% of households reported conflicts with snow leopard conservation in the previous 12 months, primarily due to damage to livelihoods; these were significantly higher in the Annapurna region. 373 livestock were reported lost by households to snow leopards in the previous 12 months, representing 3.4% of total livestock owned and US$ 132,450 in financial value. Livestock losses were significantly lower in the Everest area. In linear regression models, total household livestock losses to all sources best explained conflicts with snow leopard conservation and household livestock losses to snow leopards but the models for the former dependent variable had very low explanatory power. Conservation in general, and large carnivore conservation in particular, should distinguish carefully between impacts caused by coexistence with these species and conflicts with conservation actors and over the methods and interventions used to conserve carnivores, especially where these negatively impact local livelihoods. In addition, livestock husbandry standards are highlighted again as an important factor in the success of carnivore conservation programmes.
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Suryawanshi, K. R., Khanyari, M., Sharma, K., Lkhagvajav, P., Mishra, C. (2019). Sampling bias in snow leopard population estimation studies. Population Eccology, , 1–9.
Abstract: Accurate assessments of the status of threatened species and their conservation
planning require reliable estimation of their global populations and robust monitoring
of local population trends. We assessed the adequacy and suitability of studies
in reliably estimating the global snow leopard (Panthera uncia) population. We
compiled a dataset of all the peer-reviewed published literature on snow leopard
population estimation. Metadata analysis showed estimates of snow leopard density
to be a negative exponential function of area, suggesting that study areas have generally
been too small for accurate density estimation, and sampling has often been
biased towards the best habitats. Published studies are restricted to six of the
12 range countries, covering only 0.3�0.9% of the presumed global range of the
species. Re-sampling of camera trap data from a relatively large study site
(c.1684 km2) showed that small-sized study areas together with a bias towards
good quality habitats in existing studies may have overestimated densities by up to
five times. We conclude that current information is biased and inadequate for generating
a reliable global population estimate of snow leopards. To develop a rigorous
and useful baseline and to avoid pitfalls, there is an urgent need for
(a) refinement of sampling and analytical protocols for population estimation of
snow leopards (b) agreement and coordinated use of standardized sampling protocols
amongst researchers and governments across the range, and (c) sampling
larger and under-represented areas of the snow leopard's global range.
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Khanyari, M., Robinson, S., Milner-Gulland, E. J., Morgan, E. R., Rana, R. S., Suryawanshi, K. R. (2022). Pastoralism in the high Himalayas: Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice Open Access Understanding changing practices and their implications for parasite transmission between livestock and wildlife. Springer Open, 12(44), 1–16.
Abstract: Rangelands are increasingly being affected by climatic variations, fragmentation and changes in livestock management practices. Along with resource competition between livestock and wildlife, disease transmission has implications for people and wildlife in these shared landscapes. We worked with two pastoral communities in the Western Indian Himalayas: the migratory Kinnauras that travel to the Trans‐Himalayan Pin valley in summer and the resident herders of Pin Valley. Asiatic ibex (Capra sibirica) is the predominant wild herbivore in Pin. The pastures in Pin are grazed by both livestock (migratory and resident) and ibex, with the potential for disease transmission. We investigate the effects of herding practices on livestock health and disease transmission, while focusing on gastro‐intestinal nematodes (GINs) as they can spread by sharing pasture between wild and domestic ungulates. Surveys were carried out between June and August 2019, the period when migratory Kinnauras, local herders and Asiatic Ibex are found in Pin Valley. We found that the Kinnaura flocks share pasture with ibex during their time in Pin, exhibiting significantly higher endo‐parasite burdens than sedentary livestock, and the Kinnaura flocks are increasing in number. This suggests GIN cross‐transmission is possible, as GINs have low host specificity and a free‐living, environmental stage that is trophically acquired. As local (sedentary) sheep and goats rarely share pasture with ibex, have low endo‐parasite burdens and are few in number, they are unlikely to transmit parasites to ibex. However, increasingly large local stock numbers may be contributing to pasture degradation which could cause nutritional stress and resource competition, exacerbating GIN impacts. We also find evidence for transhumance persisting, in spite of signs of pasture degradation that are seemingly affecting livestock productivity and potentially disease transmission. It is critical that proactive measures are taken, like participatory disease management with the Kinnauras, to align livelihoods with wildlife and rangeland conservation.
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Parker, B. G., Khanyari, M., Ambarli, H., Buuveibaatar, B., Kabir, M., Khanal, G., Mirzadeh, H. R., Onon, Y., Farhadinia, M. S. (2023). A review of the ecological and socioeconomic characteristics of trophy hunting across Asia. Animal Conservation, , 1–16.
Abstract: The continuing debates about trophy hunting should be underpinned by an understanding of at least the basic characteristics of the practice (e.g. species, quotas, areas, prices). Whilst many countries in Asia have established trophy hunting programmes of considerable importance to conservation and local livelihoods, there remains some ambiguity over the extent of trophy hunting in Asia as its basic characteristics in each country have not been compiled. In this study, we compile information on various ecological and socioeconomic characteristics of trophy hunting of mammals for countries across Asia by reviewing published and unpublished literature, analysing trade data, and obtaining contributions from in-country contacts. Across Asia, established trophy hunting programmes exist in at least 11 countries and target at least 30 species and one hybrid (incl., five Vulnerable and one Endangered species). Trophy hunting in these countries varies markedly in areas (e.g. >1 million km2 in Kazakhstan, 37% of country, vs. 1325 km2 in Nepal, <1% of country) and annual offtakes (e.g. Kazakhstan: 4500 individuals from 4 of 5 trophy species; Pakistan: 229 from 4 of 7; Mongolia: 155 from 6 of 9; Tajikistan: 126 from 3 of 6; Nepal: 22 from 3 of the 4 that are trophy hunted in practice). Permit prices also vary across species and countries, with domestic and international hunters sometimes charged different rates. Hunters from the USA appear overwhelmingly prominent among international clients. National legislations typically mandate a proportion of trophy hunting revenue to accrue locally (range: 40–100%). We provide five key recommendations for research to inform trophy hunting policy in Asia: (1) Ecological impact assessments; (2) Socioeconomic impact assessments; (3) Evaluations of the contributions of trophy hunting to conservation spending; (4) Evaluations of the contributions of trophy hunting to the post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework; (5) Further examinations of perceptions of trophy hunting.
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Hacker, C., Atzeni, L., Munkhtsog, B., Munkhtsog, B., Galsandorj, N., Zhang, Y., Liu, Y., Buyanaa, C., Bayandonoi, G., Ochirjav, M., Farrington, J. D., Jevit, M., Zhang, Y., Wu, L. Cong, W., Li, D., Gavette, C., Jackson, R., Janecka, J. E. (2022). Genetic diversity and spatial structures of snow leopards (Panthera uncia) reveal proxies of connectivity across Mongolia and northwestern China. Landscape Ecology, , 1–19.
Abstract: Understanding landscape connectivity and population genetic parameters is imperative for threatened species management. However, such information is lacking for the snow leopard (Panthera uncia). This study sought to explore hierarchical snow leopard gene flow patterns and drivers of genetic structure in Mongolia and China. A total of 97 individuals from across Mongolia and from the north-eastern edge of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau in Gansu Province to the middle of Qinghai Province in China were genotyped across 24 microsatellite loci. Distance-based frameworks were used to determine a landscape scenario best explaining observed genetic structure. Spatial and non-spatial methods were used to investigate fine-scale autocorrelation and similarity patterns as well as genetic structure and admixture. A genetic macro-division between populations in China and Mongolia was observed, suggesting that the Gobi Desert is a substantial barrier to gene flow. However, admixture and support for a resistance-based mode of isolation suggests connective routes that could facilitate movement. Populations in Mongolia had greater connectivity, indicative of more continuous habitat. Drivers of genetic structure in China were difficult to discern, and fine-scale sampling is needed. This study elucidates snow leopard landscape connectivity and helps to prioritize conservation areas. Although contact zones may have existed and occasional crossings can occur, establishing corridors to connect these areas should not be a priority. Focus should be placed on maintaining the relatively high connectivity for snow leopard populations within Mongolia and increasing research efforts in China.
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Kichloo, M. A., Sharma, K., Sharma, N. (2023). Climate casualties or human disturbance? Shrinking distribution of the three large carnivores in the Greater Himalaya. Springer – Climatic Change, 176(118), 1–17.
Abstract: Mammalian carnivores are key to our understanding of ecosystem dynamics, but most of them are threatened with extinction all over the world. Conservating large carnivores is often an arduous task considering the complex relationship between humans and carnivores, and the diverse range and reasons of threats they face. Climate change is exacerbating the situation further by interacting with most existing threats and amplifying their impacts. The Mountains of Central and South Asia are warming twice as rapidly as the rest of the northern hemisphere. There has been limited research on the effect of climate change and other variables on large carnivores. We studied the patterns in spatio-temporal distribution of three sympatric carnivores, common leopard, snow leopard, and Asiatic black bear in Kishtwar high altitude National Park, a protected area in the Great Himalayan region of Jammu and Kashmir. We investigated the effects of key habitat characteristics as well as human disturbance and climatic factors to understand the spatio-temporal change in their distributions between the early 1990s and around the year 2016–2017. We found a marked contraction in the distribution of the three carnivores between the two time periods. While snow leopard shifted upwards and further away from human settlements, common leopard and Asiatic black bear suffered higher rates of local extinctions at higher altitudes and shifted to lower areas with more vegetation, even if that brought them closer to settlements. We also found some evidence that snow leopards were less likely to have faced range contraction in areas with permanent glaciers. Our study underscores the importance of climate adaptive conservation practices for long-term management in the Greater Himalaya, including the monitoring of changes in habitat, and space-use patterns by human communities and wildlife.
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Riddell, M. L. G. (2004). Snow Leopard Expedition Kazakhstan 2004.
Abstract: This Newcastle University Expedition reviewed the conflict between man and snow leopard in the region east of Tekeli in the Dzhungarian Alatau range, Kazakhstan. After the soviet state breakup in 1991 snow leopards in Kazakhstan and in the other Asian republics were subjected to high levels of persecution. There are thought to be between 180-200 snow leopards in Kazakhstan, of which 37-40 individuals inhabit the Dzhungarian Mountains. No work has been done previously to review the present snow leopard-human conflicts in this region, and this project looked to update previous reports from Central Asia about predominant conflicts in these regions. The expedition team worked with the Institute of Zoology in Kazakhstan and two of the six person team were Kazakh students. Methods comparable to those used in previous studies were used to map and rank the threats in the western area of the range, over an eight week period. The expedition team lived in the mountains for periods of two-three weeks, carrying all their food and equipment and using local vehicles, horses and trekking to move from pasture to pasture. Semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews and prey counts were used to assess snow leopard-human conflicts including poaching of snow leopard, poaching of leopard wild prey, human disturbance and livestock overgrazing. The results from the report support much previous work from Kazakhstan and other areas in Central Asia, but serve as a useful update shedding light on an optimistic future for snow leopard conservation while highlighting what the expedition team perceives to be the major threats to snow leopards. The threats to snow leopards, in order of relevance from most to least, are loss of prey predominantly through hunting by local people (both legal and illegal), direct hunting of snowleopard for pelt/medicine, disturbance by herders on the pastures, snow leopard habitat fragmentation around the mountain bases, and least importantly overgrazing by domestic livestock. Retaliatory kills by herders are not a threat in the region and on livestock were killed by snow leopards. Levels of all hunting, legal and illegal, need to be reduced in the range until wildlife populations have recovered significantly from the mid-1990's over-hunting period. Levels of rural corruption among many stakeholders were high around the mountain region, and are thought to contribute negatively to wildlife conservation in the area. Ecotourism in the area, that incorporates local people around the mountain region, is proposed as a solution to offer local people's incentives to lower hunting levels. This report makes the following main recommendations:
ÿStrengthening law enforcement capacity
ÿIncreasing the number of ecological rangers
ÿIncreasing incentives of ecological rangers to prevent poaching
ÿEquipping the ecological rangers more sufficiently
ÿMore effective communication between ranger and National Park administrative regions
ÿThe involvement of all stakeholders in wildlife conservation including military officials and local herders
ÿWhistle blower policies to prevent illegal trade in all animals in the region
ÿMore geographic consistency between present and proposed protected areas in the region
Accurate snow leopard monitoring to build on valuable information previously collected in Kazakhstan
Provision of local incentives (ecotourism and community based hunting reserves) to reduce local hunting and local unemployment around the mountains
Increased interest and technical assistance in Kazakhstan from conservation International Non-Governmental Organizations
More government fund for the Institute of Zoology
Stronger cross border (Kazakhstan-China) legislation implementation Further research could involve establishing an annual, standardized, snow leopard
survey in the range, or could compare these findings of threats to snow leopards to other regions in Kazakhstan (eg. The Altai) or Central Asia.
This report has been replicated for all the expedition sponsors, put on the internet, and
distributed among contacts in the snow leopard conservation community.
The expedition team also spent some time exploring and photographing some of the remoter valleys around the study pastures, and made a short video of the teams exploits. Links were made between KIMEP University in Almaty, and Newcastle University, registered a research centre with the Royal Geographical Society, and lectured about the Dzhungarian range and snow leopard conservation at; the Royal Geographical Society, Newcastle University, Royal Zoological Society for Scotland(Edinburgh Zoo), and Wilderness Lecturers (Bristol).
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