Pokrovski, V. S. (1976). The Snow Leopard Large Predators. Moscow.
Abstract: Detailed review of snow leopard distribution and abundance, behavior, ecology,captive population and conservation measures in the Soviet Union. Estimates a snow leopard population of 300 +/- 150.
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Hunter, D. (1996). Mongolian-American Snow Leopard Project (Vol. xiv). Seattle: International Snow Leopard Trust.
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Jackson, R., & Ahlborn, G. (1989). Snow Leopards in Nepal-home range and movements. National Geographic Res., 5, 161–175.
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Jackson, R., Roe, J., Wangchuk, R., & Hunter, D. (2005). Camera-Trapping of Snow Leopards. Cat News, 42(Spring), 19–21.
Abstract: Solitary felids like tigers and snow leopards are notoriously difficult to enumerate, and indirect techniques like pugmark surveys often produce ambiguous information that is difficult to interpret because many factors influence marking behavior and frequency (Ahlborn & Jackson 1988). Considering the snow leopard's rugged habitat, it is not surprising then that information on its current status and occupied range is very limited. We adapted the camera-trapping techniques pioneered by Ullas Karanth and his associates for counting Bengal tigers to the census taking of snow leopards in the Rumbak watershed of the India's Hemis High Altitude National Park (HNP), located in Ladakh near Leh (76ø 50' to 77ø 45' East; 33ø 15' to 34ø 20'North).
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Frueh, R. (1968). A note on breeding snow leopards at the Saint Louis Zoo. Int.Zoo Yearbook, 8, 74–76.
Abstract: Breif comments on physical characteristics of the young, care and reproductive behavior of snow leopards
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Freeman, H. (1982). Characteristics of the social behavior in the snow leopard. In L. Blomqvist (Ed.), International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, Vol. 3 (Vol. 3, pp. 117–120). Helsinki: Helsinki Zoo.
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Kitchener, S. L., Meritt, & Rosenthal, M. (1975). Observations on the breeding and husbandry of snow leopards, Panthera uncia. Int.Zoo Yearbook, 15, 212–217.
Abstract: Describes adult care and breeding biology, and the care, growth, and mortality factors of young snow leopards in a successful breeding program in the Lincon Park Zoo, Chicago, Illinois.
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McCarthy, T., Khan, J., Ud-Din, J., & McCarthy, K. (2007). First study of snow leopards using GPS-satellite collars underway in Pakistan. Cat News, 46(Spring), 22–23.
Abstract: Snow leopards (Uncia uncia) are highly cryptic and occupy remote inaccessible habitat, making studying the cats difficult in the extreme. Yet sound knowledge of the cat's ecology, behavior and habitat needs is required to intelligently conserve them. This information is lacking for snow leopards, and until recently so was the means to fill that knowledge gap. Two long-term studies of snow leopards using VHF radio collars have been undertaken in Nepal (1980s) and Mongolia (1990s) but logistical and technological constraints made the findings of both studies equivocal. Technological advances in the interim, such as GPS collars which report data via satellite, make studies of snow leopards more promising, at least in theory.
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Ming, M. (2006). Camera trapping on snow leopards in the Muzat Valley, Reserve, Xinjiang, P.R. China (October-December 2005).
Abstract: The main purpose of this work was to study the use of infrared trapping cameras to estimate Snow Leopard population size in a specific study area. This is the first time a study of this nature has taken place in China. During 71 days of field work, a total of 36 cameras were set up in Muzat Valley adjacent to the Tomur Nature Reserve in Xinjiang Province. We expended approximately 2094 trap days total. At least 32 pictures of Snow Leopards, 22 pictures of other wild species and 72 pictures of livestock were taken in the Muzat Valley. Meanwhile, 20 transects were run and 31 feces sample were collected. We also observed the behavior of ibex for 77.3 hours and found a total of approximately 264 ibexes in the research area.
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O'Connor, T., & Freeman, H. (1982). Maternal behavior and behavioral development in the captive snow leopard (Panthera uncia). In L. Blomqvist (Ed.), International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, Vol. 3 (Vol. 3, pp. 103–110). Helsinki: Helsinki Zoo.
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Dang, H. (1967). The snow leopard and its prey. The Cheetal, 11, 47–58.
Abstract: Discusses distribution and habitat of snow leopard in India. Estimates population of 200-400 in entire Himalayan region. Reports seventeen occasions of observing snow leopards in the wild, one involving the killing of Himalayan thar. Discusses snow leopard hunting methods and food habits, and provides evidence of predation from examination of 17 snow leopard kills.
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Rieger, I. (1978). Scent marking behaviour of ounces, Uncia uncia. In L. Blomqvist (Ed.), International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards, Vol. 1 (Vol. 1, pp. 78–103). Helsinki: Helsinki Zoo.
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Schaller, G. B. (1977). Mountain Monarchs: Wild Sheep and Goats of the Himalaya (Wildlife Behavior & Ecology). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Abstract: Describes snow leopard status and field observations from studies in Pakistan and Nepal. Review provides some data on snow leopard marking behavior, social relations, food habits and predator behavior.
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Burgener, N., Gusset, M., & Schmid, H. (2008). Frustrated appetitive foraging behavior, stereotypic pacing, and fecal glucocorticoid levels in snow leopards (Uncia uncia) in the Zurich Zoo (Vol. 11).
Abstract: This study hypothesized that permanently frustrated, appetitive-foraging behavior caused the stereotypic pacing regularly observed in captive carnivores. Using 2 adult female snow leopards (Uncia uncia), solitarily housed in the Zurich Zoo, the study tested this hypothesis experimentally with a novel feeding method: electronically controlled, time-regulated feeding boxes. The expected result of employing this active foraging device as a successful coping strategy was reduced behavioral and physiological measures of stress, compared with a control-feeding regime without feeding boxes. The study assessed this through behavioral observations and by evaluating glucocorticoid levels noninvasively from feces. Results indicated that the 2 snow leopards did not perform successful coping behavior through exercising active foraging behavior or through displaying the stereotypic pacing. The data support a possible explanation: The box-feeding method did not provide the 2 snow leopards with the external stimuli to satisfy their appetitive behavioral needs. Moreover, numerous other factors not necessarily or exclusively related to appetitive behavior could have caused and influenced the stereotypic pacing.
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Schaller, G. B. (1972). On meeting a Snow Leopard. Animal Kingdom, 75(1), 7–13.
Abstract: Discusses snow leopard distribution, ecology and conservation. Describes baiting (with a domestic goat) of a snow leopard and cub in a game reserve in Northern Pakistan. Incudes a description of the Leopard killing a goat, and observations over a week when the leopards were feeding on the goat baits.
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Schaller, G. B. (1980). Stones of Silence: Journeys in the Himalaya. New York: Viking Press.
Abstract: Anecdotal description of wildlife field studies in the Himalaya, including information on snow leopard natural history and an encounter with snow leopards in Pakistan.
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Johansson, O., Ausilio, G., Low, M., Lkhagvajav, P., Weckworth,
B., Sharma, K. (2020). The timing of breeding and independence for snow leopard females
and their cubs. Mammalian Biology, .
Abstract: Significant knowledge gaps persist on snow leopard demography
and reproductive behavior. From a GPS-collared population in Mongolia,
we estimated the timing of mating, parturition and independence. Based
on three mother–cub pairs, we describe the separation phase of the cub
from its mother as it gains independence. Snow leopards mated from
January–March and gave birth from April–June. Cubs remained with their
mother until their second winter (20–22 months of age) when cubs started
showing movements away from their mother for days at a time. This
initiation of independence appeared to coincide with their mother mating
with the territorial male. Two female cubs remained in their mothers’
territory for several months after initial separation, whereas the male
cub quickly dispersed. By comparing the relationship between body size
and age of independence across 11 solitary, medium-to-large felid
species, it was clear that snow leopards have a delayed timing of
separation compared to other species. We suggest this may be related to
their mating behavior and the difficulty of the habitat and prey capture
for juvenile snow leopards. Our results, while limited, provide
empirical estimates for understanding snow leopard ecology and for
parameterizing population models.
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Thapa, K., Rayamajhi, S. (2023). Anti-predator strategies of blue sheep (naur) under varied predator compositions: a comparison of snow leopard-inhabited valleys with and without wolves in Nepal. Wildlife Research, , 1–9.
Abstract: In Nepal, naur are usually the staple wild prey for the snow leopard, a solitary stalker hunter, and in some cases, for the wolf who hunts in a pack. We assumed that naur would adapt their anti-predatory responses to the presence of chasing and ambushing predators in the Manang Valley, where there are snow leopards and wolves, and in the Nar Phu valley, an area where there is only the snow leopard.
Aims. The aim of this study was to determine if there were differences in anti-predator strategies (vigilance, habitat selection and escape terrain) of naur in two valleys over two seasons, spring and autumn.
Methods. In spring 2019, we conducted a reconnaissance survey on the status of the naur and its habitat in the Manang and Nar Phu valleys of the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal. In spring and autumn 2020 and 2021, we observed 360 focal naur individuals (180 individuals in each valley), using the vigilance behaviour methodology to examine the behaviour of the naur.
Key results. There was little difference in the size of the naur groups between the Manang and Nar Phu valleys. The naur were twice as vigilant in Manang (15%), where there are snow leopards and wolves, as they were in Nar Phu (9%), with only snow leopards. The distance from the naur to escape cover was significantly shorter in Manang than in Nar Phu valley. Naur used significantly more rolling terrain in Nar Phu than in Manang. Conclusions. The return of wolves to the Manang valley may have resulted in an increase in the level of naur vigilance. Most likely, the wolves in Manang have already had an effect on the female-to-young-ratio, and this effect will possibly have important consequences for the naur population, as well as at the ecosystem level in the future. Other key determining factors, such as the climate crisis and changes in local resources, could have a significant impact on the naur population, indicating the need for more research. Implications. The findings of this study would provide valuable baseline information for the design of a science-based conservation strategy for conservation managers and scientists on naur, snow leopards and wolves.
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Freeman, H., Braden, K. (1977). Zoo location as a factopr in the reproductive behavior of captive snow leopards, Uncia uncia. Zoological Garten J.F., 47(3/4), 280–288.
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Ali, S. M. (1990). The Cats of India. Myforest, 26(3), 275–291.
Abstract: Describes the range, behaviour and ecology of lion Panthera leo, tiger P. tigris, leopard P. pardus, snow leopard P. uncia, clouded leopard Neofelis nebylosa and cheetah Acinonyx jubatus. -P.J.Jarvis
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Freeman, H. (1980). Breeding and behavior of the snow leopard.
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Freeman, H. (1978). Social Behavior in the Snow Leopards and its implications for captive management. Int.Ped.Book of Snow Leopards, 1, 71–77.
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Hansen, J. (1980). The snow leopard study, part one.
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Chubykina, H. L., Shilo, R.A. (1981). A study of diurnal activity rhythms in snow leopards and lynx (Panthera uncia and Felix lynx) at Novosibirsk Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook, 21, 193–196.
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Ale, S. B., Brown, J.S. (2009). Prey behavior leads to predator: a case study of the Himalayan tahr and the snow leopard in Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park, Nepal. Israel Journal of Ecology & Evolution, 55(4), 315–327.
Abstract: Rare, elusive predators offer few sightings, hindering research with small sample sizes and lack of experimentation. While predators may be elusive, their prey are more readily observed. Prey respond to the presence of a predator, and these fear responses may have population- and community-level consequences. Anti-predator behaviors, such as vigilance, allow us to sidestep the difficulty of direct field studies of large predators by studying them indirectly. Here we used a behavioral indicator, the vigilance behavior of the Himalayan tahr, the snow leopard’s main local prey, to reveal the distribution and habitat use of snow leopards in the Mt. Everest region of Nepal. We combined techniques of conventional field biology with concepts of foraging theory to study prey behavior in order to obtain insights into the predator’s ecology. The Himalayan tahr’s vigilance behavior correlates with the distribution of snow leopard signs. Tahr actually led us to six sightings of snow leopards. We conclude that behavioral indicators provided by prey offer a valuable tool for studying and monitoring stealthy and rare carnivores.
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