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Esson, C. , Skerratt, L. F. , Berger, L. , Malmsten, J., Strand, T. , Lundkvist, A., Järhult, J. D., Michaux, J., Mijiddorj, T. N., , Bayrakçısmith, R., Mishra, C., Johansson, O |
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Health and zoonotic Infections of snow leopards Panthera unica in the South Gobi desert of Mongolia |
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2019 |
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Infection Ecology & Epidemiology |
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9 |
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1604063 |
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1-11 |
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Snow leopard; zoonoses; conservation; one health; Mongolia; ticks |
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Background: Snow leopards, Panthera uncia, are a threatened apex predator, scattered across the mountains of Central and South Asia. Disease threats to wild snow leopards have not been investigated.
Methods and Results: Between 2008 and 2015, twenty snow leopards in the South Gobi desert of Mongolia were captured and immobilised for health screening and radio-collaring. Blood samples and external parasites were collected for pathogen analyses using enzyme- linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), microscopic agglutination test (MAT), and next- generation sequencing (NGS) techniques. The animals showed no clinical signs of disease, however, serum antibodies to significant zoonotic pathogens were detected. These patho- gens included, Coxiella burnetii, (25% prevalence), Leptospira spp., (20%), and Toxoplasma gondii (20%). Ticks collected from snow leopards contained potentially zoonotic bacteria from the genera Bacillus, Bacteroides, Campylobacter, Coxiella, Rickettsia, Staphylococcus and Streptococcus.
Conclusions: The zoonotic pathogens identified in this study, in the short-term did not appear to cause illness in the snow leopards, but have caused illness in other wild felids. Therefore, surveillance for pathogens should be implemented to monitor for potential longer- term disease impacts on this snow leopard population. |
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McCarthy, T.M.; Chapron, G. |
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Title |
Snow Leopard Survival Strategy |
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Miscellaneous |
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2003 |
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snow leopard; survival; threats; conservation; action; research; 5350 |
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I. SNOW LEOPARD: REVIEW OF CURRENT KNOWLEDGE AND STATUS
This Snow Leopard Survival Strategy (SLSS) was undertaken to provide comprehensive conservation and research guidelines to ensure a range-wide coordinated effort in the fi ght to save the endangered snow leopard and had the following specific goals: Assess and prioritize threats to snow leopard survival on a geographic basis.
Defi ne and prioritize conservation, education, and policy measures appropriate to alleviate threats.
Prioritize subjects for snow leopard research and identify viable or preferred research methods.
Build a network of concerned scientists and conservationists to facilitate open dialogue and cross-border cooperation.
Gain consensus on a fundamental Snow Leopard Survival Strategy document that will be made available to the range states to aid conservation planning at national and local levels.
The highly participatory process started with a survey of specialists designed to gather information on perceived threats to snow leopards, appropriate actions to address threats, knowledge gaps, protected area status, policy and law issues, impediments to achieving conservation of snow leopards, and cultural relevance of snow leopards. Drafts of a Strategy were circulated and then the Snow Leopard Survival Summit was convened in Seattle, USA from 21-26 May 2002 and was attended by 58 of the specialists to debate issues and refi ne the Strategy. This SLSS document is the end product of that process. Background on the snow leopard The snow leopard (Uncia uncia) is a member of the Felidae subfamily Pantherinae and on the basis of morphology and behavior it is placed alone in a separate genus. They are found in 12 countries across Central Asia (China, Bhutan, Nepal, India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Mongolia). China contains as much as 60% of the snow leopard's potential habitat. Inaccessible and difficult terrain, along with the secretive nature of this rare cat helps account for the fact that large parts of its range have yet to be surveyed. Between 4,500 and 7,350 snow leopards are thought to occur within a total potential habitat area of 1,835,000 km2. Snow leopards are generally solitary and mating usually occurs between late January and midMarch, and one to five cubs are born after a gestation period of 93 to 110 days, generally in June or July. Snow leopards are closely associated with the alpine and subalpine ecological zones, preferring broken, rocky terrain with vegetation that is dominated by shrubs or grasses. Home range size and shape is not well known. The home range size of five snow leopards in prime habitat in Nepal ranged from 12 to 39 km2, with substantial overlap between individuals and sexes. In Mongolia, where food resources may be scarcer, home ranges of both males and females exceeded 400 km2. Snow leopards are opportunistic predators capable of killing prey up to three times their own weight. They will also take small prey such as marmot or chukar partridge. In general, their most commonly taken prey consists of wild sheep and goats
(including blue sheep, Asian ibex, markhor, and argali). Adult snow leopards kill a large prey animal every 10-15 days, and remained on the kill for an average of 3-4 days, and sometimes up to a week. Predation on livestock can be significant, which often results in retribution killing by herders. Snow Leopards are listed as Endangered on the
IUCN Red List in that they do not meet the standards of Critically Endangered but are projected to decline by 50% or more over next 3 generations due to potential levels of exploitation (trade in pelts/bones and conflict with
livestock), and due to declining: 1) area of occupancy, 2) extent of occurrence, and 3) quality of habitat (prey depletion). They appear in Appendix I of both CITES and the Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of
Wild Animals (CMS). Snow Leopards are protected nationally over most of its range, with the probable exception of Afghanistan. However, in some countries the relevant legislation may not always be very effective, e.g. because penalties are too low to function as deterrent, or they contain some significant loopholes.
II. THREATS AND CONSERVATION ACTIONS
Regional Assessment
This document attempts to list and discuss the threats, conservation actions and information needs pertinent to snow leopard survival. However, these vary substantially across the vast extent of snow leopard range, so no prescription will be universally applicable. We used a regional approach and for purposes of grouping areas where conditions may be similar, we looked at geography, political boundaries, cultural/religious influences, and rural livelihoods. Within that framework we defined four broad regions:
Himalaya (HIMLY),
Karakorum/Hindu Kush (KK/HK),
Commonwealth of Independent States and W. China (CISWC),
The Northern Range of Russia, Mongolia and N. China (NRANG) SNOW LEOPARD SURVIVAL STRATEGY
Threats to Snow Leopard Survival
A key component of the SLSS process was to identify threats to long-term snow leopard survival across their range. The following list is the result of extensive consultations with stakeholders in Asia and the expert group at the SLSS Summit. Threats are grouped into four broad categories 1) Habitat and Prey related, 2) Direct Killing of Snow Leopards, 3) Policy and Awareness, and 4) Other Issues.
List of Threats
Category 1: Habitat and Prey Related
1.1 Habitat Degradation and Fragmentation
1.2 Reduction of Natural Prey due to Illegal Hunting
1.3 Reduction of Natural Prey due to Legal Hunting
1.4 Reduction of Natural Prey due to Competition with Livestock
1.5 Reduction of Natural Prey due to Disease
1.6 Fencing that Disrupts Natural Migration
Category 2: Direct Killing or Removal of Snow Leopards
2.1 Killing of Snow Leopards in Retribution for Livestock depredation
2.2 Poaching Snow Leopards for Trade in Hides or Bones
2.3 Museum Collection of Live Animals
2.4 Traditional Hunting of Snow Leopards
2.5 Secondary Poisoning and Trapping of Snow Leopards
2.6 Diseases of Snow Leopards
Category 3: Policy and Awareness
3.1 Lack of Appropriate Policy
3.2 Lack of Effective Enforcement
3.3 Lack of Trans-boundary Cooperation
3.4 Lack of Institutional Capacity
3.5 Lack of Awareness among Local People
3.6 Lack of Awareness among Policy Makers
Category 4: Other Issues
4.1 War and Related Military Activities
4.2 Climate Change
4.3 Human Population Growth and Poverty (indirect threat)
Potential Actions to Address Threats
Several methods are identified and elaborated in this document and they include:
Grazing Management: Promote livestock grazing practices that reduce impacts on native wildlife, in particular snow leopard prey species.
Wildlife-based Ecotourism: Establishing wildlife based tourism that provides jobs and financial benefits to local people will add economic value to wildlife and create incentives to protect the resource.
Cottage Industry: Provide income generation opportunities for communities in snow leopard habitat through handicraft manufacture and marketing opportunities with direct and transparent linkages to wildlife conservation via contracts that provides positive incentives for compliance.
Ungulate Trophy Hunting Programs: Establish or restructure trophy hunting programs that are sustainable, well monitored and provide return to local people as an incentive to protect ungulates. Community co-management of hunting program should be encouraged where ever appropriate.
Reducing Poaching and Trade in Snow Leopard Parts:
Determine location, nature and extent of snow leopard poaching for trade and bring pressure, both legal and educational, to limit same.
Reducing Livestock Depredation by Snow Leopards:
Encourage livestock husbandry practices that reduce depredation by snow leopards and other predators.
Animal Husbandry: Provide training in animal husbandry and veterinary care to improve monetary return at lower stock levels, limit exposure to predation, and reduce impacts on pasture and rangelands.
Conservation Education and Awareness: Raise awareness of snow leopard conservation issues, concerns, need for action, legal matters, etc, through variety of media among different audiences.
III. RESEARCH AND INFORMATION NEEDS
During the process of listing the threats to snow leopards and the required conservation actions, a set of information needs was also identified. Hence, the list below encompasses the knowledge required to carry-out urgent conservation actions.
Master List of Information Needs
R.1 Snow leopard distribution and “hot spots”
R.2 Snow leopard migration and dispersal routes
R.3 Snow leopard population size
R.4 Snow leopard population trends and factor responsible for changes
R.5 Protected Area coverage extent and representation of habitats (gap analysis)
R.6 Agents of habitat degradation and relative impacts
R.7 Snow leopard prey relationships
R.8 Prey species distribution and “hot spots”
R.9 Prey population baseline and trends
R.10 Dynamics of illegal ungulate hunting (sources, local need, uses, trade, etc.)
R.11 Dynamics of legal ungulate harvest and baseline statistics (sex/age, effort, trophy size, etc.)
R.12 Wild ungulate livestock interactions (competition)
R.13 Ungulate disease type, areas of occurrence, prevalence, virulence, treatment
R.14 Snow leopard poaching levels
R.15 Illegal trade in wildlife parts market demand, sources and routes, value, etc.
R.16 Livestock depredation rates
SNOW LEOPARD SURVIVAL STRATEGY | xi
R.17 Livestock depredation causes
R.18 Grazing pressure and range conditions
R.19 Snow leopard disease type, areas of occurrence, prevalence, virulence, treatment
R.20 Snow leopard home-range size and habitat use
R.21 Snow leopard social structure and behavior
R.22 Snow leopard population genetics
R.23 Snow leopard food habits
R.24 Snow leopard relationship to other predators
R.25 Economic valuation of snow leopards
R.26 Snow leopard monitoring techniques development/improvement
R.27 Socio-economic profiling of herder communities in snow leopard habitat
R.28 Methods to alleviate impacts of war
R.29 Livestock and human population status and trends
R.30 Analysis of existing policies and laws
R.31 Human attitudes to snow leopards
IV. COUNTRY ACTION PLANNING
The SLSS should be seen as a tool to aid in the development of country-specifi c Action Plans. In general Action
Planning leaders should review the SLSS and then:
Analyze the problems and choose the proper scale,
Identify the key stakeholders and integrate them into the planning process at the beginning, (i.e. ensure a broadly participatory process),
Choose a multi-level approach if the problems and stakeholders are particularly diverse,
Seek to identify achievable and appropriate actions,
Build monitoring of results into the Plan.
The Action Planning process need not be done in a vacuum. The Snow Leopard Network (see below), can provide much needed assistance in terms of expertise and advice during the planning process. Collectively, the SLN membership has experience in nearly every area of snow leopard related conservation, research, education, and policy. They can be approached for assistance through the International Snow Leopard Trust, 4649 Sunnyside
Ave. N., Suite 325, Seattle, Washington, 98103, USA, on their website http://www.snowleopard.org/sln/ or via email at <info@snowleopard.org>.
V. TAKING THE SLSS FORWARD
A key outcome of the SLSS Workshop was the creation of the Snow Leopard Network (SLN). The SLN is a partnership of organizations and individuals from government and private sector who work together for the effective conservation of the snow leopard, its prey, and their natural habitat to the benefi t of people and biodiversity.
The initial members of the SLN are the specialist who worked together on the SLSS. Carrying the SLSS forward was the impetus for developing the Network. |
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International Snow Leopard Trust and Snow Leopard Network |
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SLN @ rana @ 520 |
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668 |
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Ismaili, R. R. R., Peng, X., Li., Y, Ali, A., Ahmad, T., Rahman, A. U., Ahmad, S., Shi, K. |
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Title |
Modeling Habitat Suitability of Snow Leopards in Yanchiwan National Reserve, China |
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2024 |
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Animals |
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14 |
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1938 |
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1-21 |
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snow leopard; maximum entropy modeling; Yanchiwan National Nature Reserve; species conservation; environmental impact |
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Snow leopards (Panthera uncia) are elusive predators inhabiting high-altitude and mountainous rugged habitats. The current study was conducted in the Yanchiwan National Nature Reserve, Gansu Province, China, to assess the habitat suitability of snow leopards and identify key environmental factors inducing their distribution. Field data collected between 2019 and 2022 through scat sampling and camera trapping techniques provided insights into snow leopard habitat preferences. Spatial distribution and cluster analyses show distinct hotspots of high habitat suitability, mostly concentrated near mountainous landscapes. While altitude remains a critical determinant, with places above 3300 m showing increased habitat suitability, other factors such as soil type, human footprint, forest cover, prey availability, and human disturbance also play important roles. These variables influence ecological dynamics and are required to assess and manage snow leopard habitats. The MaxEnt model has helped us to better grasp these issues, particularly the enormous impact of human activities on habitat suitability. The current study highlights the importance of altitude in determining snow leopard habitat preferences and distribution patterns in the reserve. Furthermore, the study underscores the significance of considering elevation in conservation planning and management strategies for snow leopards, particularly in mountainous regions. By combining complete environmental data with innovative modeling tools, this study not only improves local conservation efforts but also serves as a model for similar wildlife conservation initiatives around the world. By understanding the environmental factors driving snow leopard distribution, conservation efforts can be more efficiently directed to ensure the long-term survival of this endangered species. This study provides valuable insights for evidence-based conservation efforts to safeguard the habitats of snow leopards amidst emerging anthropogenic pressure and environmental fluctuations. |
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SLN @ rakhee @ |
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Anonymous |
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Snow leopard conservation: a NABU project in Kyrgyzstan |
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2001 |
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Oryx |
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35 |
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4 |
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354-355 |
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snow leopard; conservation; Kyrgyzstan; Nabu; endangered; illegal hunting; 5180 |
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Since 1999, NABU, the German Society for Nature Conservation, has been organizing the conservation of snow leopards Uncia uncia in Kyrgyzstan in an international project in cooperation with the Kyrgyz Ministry of the Environment, Emergencies and Civil Defence and the Kyrgyz Ministry of the Interior. The animal, with its typical grey-beige patterned fur and bushy tail, is one of the most endangered big cats in the world. It is categorized as Endangered on the 2000 IUCN Red List and is on CITES Appendix I. |
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Conservation News section of Oryx. Full text available at URL. |
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SLN @ rana @ 503 |
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93 |
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Ferguson, D.A. |
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International Cooperation for Snow Leopard and Biodiversity Conservation: The Government Perspective |
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1997 |
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178-193 |
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snow leopard; biodiversity; management; development; India; Pakistan; conservation; hunting; poaching; hunter; pelt; skin; fur; coat; livestock; habitat; herder; herders; Ussr; park; parks; reserves; reserve; refuge; Slims; field study; survey; surveys; transects; transect; Khunjerab; protected area; browse; U.S.S.R.; 2990 |
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Islt |
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Lahore, Pakistan |
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R.Jackson; A.Ahmad |
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full text available at URL Title, Monographic: Eighth International Snow Leopard SymposiumPlace of Meeting: Islamabad, PakistanDate of Copyright: 1997 |
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Jackson, R.; Wangchuk, R. |
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A Community-Based Approach to Mitigating Livestock Depredation by Snow Leopards |
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2004 |
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Human Dimensions of Wildlife |
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snow leopard,depredation,human-wildlife conflict,participatory planning,India; livestock; livestock depredation; livestock-depredation; depredation; endangered; snow; snow leopard; snow-leopard; leopard; panthera; panthera uncia; Panthera-uncia; uncia; Himalayan; protected; protected areas; protected area; protected-areas; protected-area; areas; area; attack; sheep; goats; goat; local; villagers; community-based; conservation; Hemis; national; national park; National-park; park; India; conflict; pens; income; participatory; strategy; planning; sense; project; snow leopards; snow-leopards; leopards; protection; retaliatory; poaching |
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Livestock depredation by the endangered snow leopard (Panthera uncia) is an increasingly contentious issue in Himalayan villages, especially in or near protected areas. Mass attacks in which as many as 100 sheep and goats are killed in a single incident inevitably result in retaliation by local villagers. This article describes a community-based conservation initiative to address this problem in Hemis National Park, India. Human-wildlife conflict is alleviated by predator-proofing villagers' nighttime livestock pens and by enhancing household incomes in environmentally sensitive and culturally compatible ways. The authors have found that the highly participatory strategy described here (Appreciative Participatory Planning and Action-APPA) leads to a sense of project ownership by local stakeholders, communal empowerment, self-reliance, and willingness to co-exist with
snow leopards. The most significant conservation outcome of this process is the protection from retaliatory poaching of up to five snow leopards for every village's livestock pens that are made predator-proof. |
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Oli, M.K.; Taylor, K.R.; Rogers, M.E. |
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Snow leopard Panthera uncia predation of livestock: An assessment of local perceptions in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal |
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1994 |
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Biological Conservation |
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snow leopard,blue sheep,livestock predation,public attitudes,Annapurna Conservation Area,Nepal. |
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Public attitudes towards snow leopard Panthera uncia predation of domestic livestock were investigated by a questionnaire survey of four villages in snow leopard habitat within the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal Most local inhabitants were subsistence farmers, many dependent upon yaks, oxen, horses and goats, with an average livestock holding of 26.6 animals per household. Reported losses to snow leopards averaged 0.6 and O. 7 animals per household in two years of study, constituting 2.6% of total stockholding but representing in monetary terms almost a quarter of the average annual Nepali national per capita income. Local people hem strongly negative attitudes towards snow leopards and most suggested that total extermination of leopards was the only acceptable solution to the predation problem. Snow leopards were reported to be killed by herdsmen in defence of their livestock. The long-term success of snow leopard conservation programmes may depend upon the satisfactory resolution of the predation conflict. Some possible ways of reducing predation losses are also discussed. |
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SLN @ rana @ 893 |
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Li, J. Schaller, G, B. McCarthy, T. M. Wang, D. Jiagong, Z. Cai, P. Basang, L. Lu, Z |
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A Communal Sign Post of Snow Leopards (Panthera uncial) and Other Species on the Tibetan Plateau China |
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2012 |
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International Journal of Biodiversity |
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2013 |
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1:8 |
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snow leopard, Tibetan Plateau, sign post, conservation |
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The snow leopard is a keystone species in mountain ecosystems of Central Asia and the Tibetan Plateau, However, little is known about the interactions between snow leopards and sympatric carnivores. Using infrared cameras, we found a rocky junction of two valleys in Sanjiangyuan area on the Tibetan Plateau where many mammals in this area passed and frequently marked and sniffed the site at the junction. We suggest that this site serves as a sign post to many species in this area, especially snow leopards and other carnivores. The marked signs may also alert the animals passing by to temporally segregate their activities to avoid potential conflicts. We used the Schoener index to measure the degree of temporal segregation among the species captured by infrared camera traps at this site. Our research reveals the probable ways of both intra- and interspecies competition. This is an important message to help understand the structure of animal communities. Discovery of the sign post clarifies the importance of identifying key habitas ad sites of both snow leopards and other species for more effective conservation. |
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SLN @ rakhee @ |
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1389 |
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Author |
Jackson, R. |
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A radio-telemetry study of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) in Nepal with emphasis on conservation and predator-prey relations |
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1980 |
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March |
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snow leopard, Nepal, conservation, radio telemetry, prey |
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Draft |
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no |
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SLN @ rana @ |
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1260 |
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McCarthy, T.; Murray, K.; Sharma, K.; Johansson, O. |
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Preliminary results of a long-term study of snow leopards in South Gobi, Mongolia |
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2010 |
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Cat News |
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Autumn |
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53 |
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15-19 |
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snow leopard, Mongolia, monitor, population, Panthera, Snow Leopard Trust, Snow Leopard Conservation Fund, South Gobi, ecology, radio collar, GPS-satellite collar, home range, camera trapping, fecal genetics, occupancy modeling |
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Snow leopards Panthera uncia are under threat across their range and require urgent conservation actions based on sound science. However, their remote habitat and cryptic nature make them inherently difficult to study and past attempts have provided insufficient information upon which to base effective conservation. Further, there has been no statistically-reliable and cost-effective method available to monitor snow leopard populations, focus conservation effort on key populations, or assess conservation impacts. To address these multiple information needs, Panthera, Snow Leopard Trust, and Snow Leopard Conservation Fund, launched an ambitious long-term study in Mongolia’s South Gobi province in 2008. To date, 10 snow leo-pards have been fitted with GPS-satellite collars to provide information on basic snow leopard ecology. Using 2,443 locations we calculated MCP home ranges of 150 – 938 km2, with substantial overlap between individuals. Exploratory movements outside typical snow leopard habitat have been observed. Trials of camera trapping, fecal genetics, and occupancy modeling, have been completed. Each method ex-hibits promise, and limitations, as potential monitoring tools for this elusive species. |
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SLN @ rana @ |
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1151 |
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