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Mishra, C., & Madhusudan, M. D. (2002). An Incentive Scheme for Wildlife Conservation in the Indian Trans-Himalaya.. Islt: Islt.
Abstract: The habitat of the snow leopard Uncia uncia across South and Central Asia is subject to extensive pastoral use. Levels of livestock depredation by the snow leopard and other carnivores in the region are high, and often provokes retaliatory killing by the herders. This direct threat to large carnivores is further aggravated by a depletion of wild prey due to poaching and out-competition by livestock. In this paper, we describe a pilot project in the Indian Trans-Himalaya, which uses an incentive scheme to create areas free from livestock grazing on community-owned land, thereby fostering conservation commitment among local
pastoralists, as well as contributing directly to an enhancement of wild prey density.
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Mishra, C., & Bagchi, S. (2006). Living with large carnivores: predation on livestock by the snow leopard (Uncia uncia). Journal of Zoology, , 1–8.
Abstract: Livestock predation by large carnivores and their retaliatory persecution by pastoralists are worldwide conservation concerns. Poor understanding of the ecological and social underpinnings of this human-wildlife conflict hampers effective conflict management programs. The endangered snow leopard Uncia uncia is involved in conflict with people across its mountainous range in South and Central Asia, where pastoralism is the predominant land use, and is widely persecuted in retaliation. We examined human-snow leopard conflict at two sites in the Spiti region of the Indian Trans-Himalaya, where livestock outnumber wild ungulates, and the conflict is acute. We quantified the snow leopard's dependence on livestock by assessing its diet in two sites that differed in the relative abundance of livestock and wild ungulates. We also surveyed the indigenous Buddhist community's attitudes towards the snow leopard in these two sites. Our results show a relatively high dependence of snow leopards on livestock. A higher proportion of the snow leopard's diet (58%) was livestock in the area with higher livestock (29.7 animals km^2) and lower wild ungulate abundance (2.1-3.1 bharal Pseudois nayaurkm^2), compared with 40% of diet in the area with relatively lower livestock (13.9km^2) and higher wild ungulate abundance (4.5-7.8 ibex Capra ibexkm^2). We found that the community experiencing greater levels of livestock losses was comparatively more tolerant towards the snow leopard. This discrepancy is explained by the presence of a conservation-incentive program at the site, and by differences in economic roles of livestock between these two communities. The former is more dependent on cash crops as a source of income while the latter is more dependent on livestock, and thereby less tolerant of the snow leopard. These data have implications for conflict management strategies. They indicate that the relative densities of livestock and wild prey may be reasonable predictors of the extent of predation by the snow leopard. However, this by itself is not an adequate measure of the intensity of conflict even in apparently similar cultural settings.
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Mitropolskiy O.V. (1979). The Red Book of the USSR (Rare and endangered bird and animal species in Uzbekistan).
Abstract: Snow leopard is distributed in the Ugam, Pskem, Chatkal, Fergana, Alai, Turkistan, and Hissar ridges. Though there is no precise data concerning number of snow leopard in Uzbekistan it is estimated to range from 15-20 to 50 animals.
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Mitropolskiy O.V. (2004). Biodiversity of mammals in Uzbekistan: results of the studies; conservation, use and monitoring projects (Vol. N 8.).
Abstract: The article reviews conservation projects regarding valuable species of the West Tien Shan such as snow leopard, Tien Shan brown bear, Tien Shan and Karatau argali, Menzbier's marmot. The questioning revealed three cases of poaching snow leopard in the West Tien Shan in Kazakhstan, and 11 in Uzbekistan. A necessity to severely suppress any acts of poaching or skin trade is emphasized. A number of measures is suggested to preserve the species.
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Moiseev V. (1993). Around Tien Shan and Hissaro-Alai.
Abstract: A visit to a nature reserve, where the author met protected animals, is described in a popular form. It describes the encounters with wild boar, griffon vulture, brown bear, Menzbier's marmot, Tien Shan souslik, golden eagle, snow leopard, and Siberian ibex.
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Moiseev V.A. (1988). Mountain nature.
Abstract: The snow leopard inhabits the upper belt of the Tien Shan, Hissar Alai and Pamir mountains. More often it hunts for wild ibexes. Irbis avoids meeting … man, and even wounded it rarely attacks him. At the beginning of spring … snow leopard gives birth to two-five cubs. It lives up to 21 years. The snow leopard is registered in the Red Data Book of USSR and IUCN Red List.
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Moiseev V.A. (1990). Snow leopard.
Abstract: Snow leopard inhabits in zones of alpine meadows and juniper forests. Main preys are ibexes and wild sheep. Irbis included in Red Data book of USSR.
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Molyukov M.I. (1989). Irbis.
Abstract: In a popular form it tells about snow leopard, its geographical distribution, behavioral patterns, food, enemies and competitors, hunting behavior, etc. Given are interesting data concerning the number of ibex killed during one hunt in eastern Pamir (25 30 ibexes), cases of snow leopard's attacking bears and so on. Snow leopard rarely preys on livestock, mainly sheep and goats. Young snow leopards are easily tamed. There are about 2,000 snow leopards in the USSR about 1,500 of them are in Kyrgyzstan.
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Mongolian Biosphere & Ecology Association. (2010). Mongolian Biosphere & Ecology Association Report March 2010.
Abstract: In accordance with order of the Ministry of Nature and Tourism,
zoologists of our association have made surveys in three ways such as
reasons why snow leopards attack domestic animals, “Snow leopard” trial
operation to count them and illegal hunting in territories of Khovd,
Gobi-Altai, Bayankhongor, Uvurkhangai and Umnugobi provinces from
September 2009 to January 2010. As result of these surveys it has made
the following conclusions in the followings: Reason to hunt them illegally: the principal reason is that
administrative units have been increased and territories of
administrative units have been diminished. There have been four
provinces in 1924 to 1926, 18 since 1965, 21 since 1990. Such situation
limits movements of herdsmen completely and pastures digressed much than
ever before. As result of such situation, 70% of pastures become desert.
Such digression caused not only heads of animals and also number of
species. Guarantee is that birds such as owls, cuckoo, willow grouse in
banks of Uyert river, Burkhanbuudai mountain, located in Biger soum,
Gobi-Altai province, which are not hunted by hunters, are disappearing
in the recent two decades. For that reason we consider it is urgently
necessary for the government to convert administrative unit structures
into four provinces. This would influence herdsmen moving across
hundreds km and pastures could depart from digression.
Second reason: cooperative movement won. The issues related to management and strengthening of national
cooperatives, considered by Central Committee of Mongolian People's
Revolutionary Party in the meeting in March 1953 was the start of
cooperatives' movement. Consideration by Yu. Tsedenbal, chairman of
Ministers Council, chairman of the MPRP, on report "Result of to unify
popular units and some important issues to maintain entity management of
agricultural cooperatives" in the fourth meeting by the Central
Committee of Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party /MPRP/ on December
16-17, 1959, proclaimed complete victory of cooperative. At the end of
1959, it could unify 767 small cooperative into 389 ones, unify 99.3 %
of herdsmen and socialize 73.3 % of animals. The remaining of animals
amount 6 million 163 thousands animals, and equals to 26.7% of total
animals. This concerned number of animals related to the article
mentioned that every family should have not more that 50 animals in
Khangai zone and not more 75 animals in Gobi desert. It shows that such
number could not satisfy needs of family if such number is divided into
five main animals in separating with reproduction animals and adult
animals. So herdsmen started hunt hoofed animals secretly and illegally
in order to satisfy their meat needs. Those animals included main food
of snow leopard such as ibex, wild sheep, and marmot. Third reason is that the state used to hunt ibex, which are main
nutrition of snow leopards, every year. The administrative unit of the
soum pursued policy to hunt ibex in order to provide meat needs of
secondary schools and hospitals. That's why this affected decrease of
ibex population. Preciously from 1986 to 1990 the permissions to hunt
one thousands of wild sheep and two thousands of ibexes were hunt for
domestic alimentary use every year. Not less than 10 local hunters of every soum used to take part in big
game of ibexes. Also they hunted many ibexes, chose 3-10 best ibexes and
hid them in the mountains for their consummation during hunting.
Fourth reason: hunting of wolves. Until 1990 the state used to give
prizes to hunter, who killed a wolf in any seasons of the year. Firstly
it offered a sheep for the wolf hunter and later it gave 25 tugrugs /15
USD/. Every year, wolf hunting was organized several times especially
picking wolf-cubs influenced spread and population of wolves. So snow
leopard came to the places where wolves survived before and attack
domestic animals. Such situation continued until 1990. Now population of
ibexes has decreased than before 1990 since the state stopped hunting
wolves, population of wolves increased in mountainous zones. We didn't
consider it had been right since it was natural event. However
population of ibexes decreased. Fifth reason: Global warming. In recent five years it has had a drought
and natural disaster from excessive snow in the places where it has
never had such natural disasters before. But Mongolia has 40 million
heads of domestic animals it has never increased like such quantity in
its history before. We consider it is not incorrect that decrease of
domestic animals could give opportunities to raise population of wild
animals. Our next survey is to make attempt to fix heads of snow leopards
correctly with low costs.
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Namgail, T., Fox, J., & Bhatnagar, Y. V. (2004). Habitat segregation between sympatric Tibetan argali Ovis ammon hodgsoni and blue sheep Pseudois nayaur in the Indian Trans-Himalaya. Journal of Zoology, 262, 57–63.
Abstract: Tibetan argali Ovis ammon hodgsoni and blue sheep Pseudois nayaur have almost completely overlapping distributions encompassing most of the Tibetan plateau and its margins. Such a sympatric distribution of related species with similar ecological requirements implies that there is some degree of resource partitioning. This may be accomplished on the basis of habitat and/or diet separation. This study evaluated such ecological separation on the basis of physical habitat partitioning by these two sympatric ungulates in Hemis High Altitude National Park, Ladakh, India, in an area where the argali established a small new population in 1978. Such separation was tested for
on the basis of expected difference between the species in their proximity to cliffs, associated with species-specific anti-predator behaviour. Tibetan argali selected habitats away from cliffs while blue sheep selected habitats close to cliffs. Blue sheep also selected steep slopes whereas argali selected gentle slopes. The two species did not differ
in their use of habitats in terms of elevation. They did, however, differ in their use of plant communities; blue sheep selected sub-shrub and grass-dominated communities whilst argali selected forb-dominated communities. We suggest that the two species coexist in this site as a result of the differential use of habitat associated with their
species-specific anti-predator strategies.
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