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Xiao, L., Hua, F., Knops, J. M. H., Zhao, X., Mishra, C., Lovari, S., Alexander, J. S., Weckworth, B., Lu, Z. |
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Spatial separation of prey from livestock facilitates coexistence of a specialized large carnivore with human land use. |
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2022 |
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Animal Conservation |
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1 - 10 |
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large carnivore; coexistence; prey; niche separation; land use; livestock; human– wildlife conflict; snow leopard. |
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There is an increasing emphasis in conservation strategies for large carnivores on facilitating their coexistence with humans. Justification for coexistence strategies should be based on a quantitative assessment of currently remaining large carnivores in human-dominated landscapes. An essential part of a carnivore’s coexistence strategy has to rely on its prey. In this research, we studied snow leopards Panthera uncia whose habitat mainly comprises human-dominated, unprotected areas, to understand how a large carnivore and its primary prey, the bharal Pseudois nayaur, could coexist with human land use activities in a large proportion of its range. Using a combination of livestock census, camera trapping and wildlife surveys, across a broad gradient of livestock grazing intensity in a 363 000 km2 landscape on the Tibetan Plateau, we found no evidence of livestock grazing impacts on snow leopard habitat use, bharal density and spatial distribution, even though livestock density was 13 times higher than bharal density. Bharal were found to prefer utilizing more rugged habitats at higher elevations with lower grass forage conditions, whereas livestock dominated in flat valleys at lower elevations with higher productivity, especially during the resource-scarce season. These findings suggest that the spatial niche separation between bharal and livestock, together with snow leopards’ specialized bharal diet, minimized conflicts and allowed snow leopards and bharal to coexist in landscapes dominated by livestock grazing. In recent years, reduced hunting and nomadic herder’s lifestyle changes towards permanent residence may have further reinforced this spatial separation. Our results indicated that, for developing conservation strategies for large carnivores, the niche of their prey in relation to human land-use is a key variable that needs to be evaluated. |
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SLN @ rakhee @ |
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1678 |
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Author |
Ahmad, A. |
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Title |
Protection of Snow Leopards through Grazier Communities:Some Examples from WWF-Pakistan's Projects in the Northern Areas |
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1994 |
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265-272 |
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conservation; Pakistan; Wwf; world-wildlife-fund; livestock; herders; herder; status; parks; park; reserve; refuge; protected-area; Dir; chitral; predator; prey; grazier; pelt; fur; coat; skin; poaching; Khunjerab; Marco-Polo-sheep; ibex; markhor; hunting; browse; protected; area; sheep; Marco-Polo; 2040 |
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Snow leopards occur near the snow line in northern Pakistan in the districts of Swat, Dir and Chitral of the Northwest Frontier Province (NWFP), Muzaffarabad district in Azad Kashmir and Gilgit and Baltistan districts in the Northern Areas. Although a number of protected areas are present in the form of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and game reserves (Table 1) where legal protection is available to all wildlife species, including snow leopards, the status of this endangered species is not improving satisfactorily. The reasons are many and range from direct persecution by livestock owners to the less than strict management of protected areas.
Because of remote and inaccessible locations and lack of proper communication with local communities, government officials and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) concerned with conservation find it difficult to obtain statistics on mortality of snow leopards. However, the killing of snow leopards is not uncommon. Because of the close and long-term association between local villagers and snow leopards, it is only through the support and cooperation of these peoples that protection of this endangered species can be assured against most of the existing threats. The effects of such cooperation has been clearly shown through some of the conservation projects of World Wildlife Fund (WWF) – Pakistan. Details of such projects and certain lessons that can be learned from these and similar projects are discussed in this paper. |
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International Snow Leopard Trust |
Place of Publication |
Usa |
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J.L.Fox; D.Jizeng |
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English |
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Full text available at URLTitle, Monographic: Proceedings of the Seventh International Snow Leopard SymposiumPlace of Meeting: ChinaDate of Copyright: 1994 |
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SLN @ rana @ 209 |
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40 |
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Wingard, J.R.; Zahler, P. |
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Title |
Silent Steppe: The Illegal Wildlife Trade Crisis in Mongolia |
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2006 |
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1-147 |
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steppe; illegal; wildlife; trade; Mongolia; asia; environment; social; development |
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The current study in Mongolia is truly groundbreaking, in that it shows that the problem of commercial wildlife trade is also vast, unsustainable, and a major threat to wildlife populations in other areas. This paper's Executive Summary briefs the topics of wildlife trade in Mongolia, fur trade, medicinal trade, game meat trade, trophy and sport hunting, trade chains and markets, trade sustainability, impacts of wildlife trade on biodiversity conservation, impacts of trade on rural livelihoods, enabling wildlife management, and management recommendations. The main content of the paper includes: wildlife trade survey methods, a history of wildlife trade in Mongolia, wildlife take and trade today, enabling wildlife management, and recommendations and priority actions. The recommendations have been divided into six separate sections, including (1) cross-cutting recommendations, (2) international trade enforcement, (3) domestic trade enforcement, (4) hunting management, (5) trophy and sport hunting management, and (6) community-based approaches. Each section identifies short-term, long-term, and regulatory goals in order of priority within each subsection. |
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World Bank |
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Washington D.C. |
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East Asia and Pacific Environment and Social Development Department |
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English version. Mongolian language translation is also available in the SLN bibliography. Mongolia Discussion Papers. East Asia and Pacific Environment and Social Development Department. Washington D.C.: World Bank. |
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SLN @ rana @ 1057 |
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1025 |
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Moheb, Z., Fuller, T. K., Zahler, P. I. |
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Title |
Snow Leopard – human conflict as a conservation challenge – a review |
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2022 |
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Snow Leopard Reports |
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1 |
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11-24 |
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Human wildlife conflict, conflict domains, mitigation schemes, Panthera uncia |
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Human conflict with large carnivores continues to be a great conservation challenge, and conflict with snow leopards (Panthera uncia) has been studied to understand causes and propose mitigation schemes. While the nature of snow leopard-human conflict is similar in most cases, reported studies have been case- and area-specific with mitigation strategies not necessarily based on a synthesis of relevant literature. We reviewed snow leopard literature published from 1970-2020 to identify the main drivers of human-snow leopard conflict (HSLC) and describe conservation and conflict mitigation strategies commonly employed. Based on 47 relevant peer-reviewed articles, review papers, book chapters, project reports, and other grey literature, we identified four major conflict domains: livestock management-related, socio-economic/human-related, ecological, and policy-related. Most articles suggested more than one conflict mitigation scheme. Three conflict mitigation domains – preventive, supportive, and compensatory – were widely reflected in the snow leopard-human conflict literature. The most commonly reported mitigation schemes included: 1) building or predator-proofing corrals; 2) training shepherds and improving livestock guarding; 3) livestock insurance schemes; 4) compensation for livestock predation; 5) capacity building, education, and awareness programs; and 6) improved breeding and use of guard dogs. Future management efforts need to tailor their approach depending on cultural, economic, and ecological circumstances.
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1708 |
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Author |
Wingard, J.R.; Zahler, P. |
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Title |
Silent Steppe: The Illegal Wildlife Trade Crisis in Mongolia |
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2006 |
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1-170 |
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steppe; illegal; wildlife; trade; Mongolia; study; threat; populations; population; areas; area; fur; fur trade; fur-trade; game; meat; hunting; Chain; impact; biodiversity; Biodiversity conservation; conservation; rural; livelihood; Wildlife-Management; management; survey; survey methods; methods; history; action; International; enforcement; domestic; community-based; approach |
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The current study in Mongolia is truly groundbreaking, in that it shows that the problem of commercial wildlife trade is also vast, unsustainable, and a major threat to wildlife populations in other areas. This paper's Executive Summary briefs the topics of wildlife trade in Mongolia, fur trade, medicinal trade, game meat trade, trophy and sport hunting, trade chains and markets, trade sustainability, impacts of wildlife trade on biodiversity conservation, impacts of trade on rural livelihoods, enabling wildlife management, and management recommendations. The main content of the paper includes: wildlife trade survey methods, a history of wildlife trade in Mongolia, wildlife take and trade today, enabling wildlife management, and recommendations and priority actions. The recommendations have been divided into six separate sections, including (1) cross-cutting recommendations, (2) international trade enforcement, (3) domestic trade enforcement, (4) hunting management, (5) trophy and sport hunting management, and (6) community-based approaches. Each section identifies short-term, long-term, and regulatory goals in order of priority within each subsection. |
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World Bank |
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Washington, D.C. |
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East Asia and Pacific Environment and Social Development Department |
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Mongolian version. English language translation is also available in the SLN bibliography. Mongolia Discussion Papers. East Asia and Pacific Environment and Social Development Department. Washington D.C.: World Bank. |
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SLN @ rana @ 1079 |
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1026 |
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Filla, M., Lama, R. P., Filla, T., Heurich, M., Balkenhol, N., Waltert, M., Khorozyan, I. |
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Patterns of livestock depredation by snow leopards and effects of intervention strategies: lessons from the Nepalese Himalaya |
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2022 |
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Wildlife Research |
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Annapurna, co-existence, conservation biology, highland communities, human–wildlife conflict, large carnivore, livestock depredation, Panthera uncia, prey selection, snow leopard. |
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Context: Large carnivores are increasingly threatened by anthropogenic activities, and their protection is among the main goals of biodiversity conservation. The snow leopard (Panthera uncia) inhabits high-mountain landscapes where livestock depredation drives it into conflicts with local people and poses an obstacle for its conservation.
Aims: The aim of this study was to identify the livestock groups most vulnerable to depredation, target them in implementation of practical interventions, and assess the effectiveness of intervention strategies for conflict mitigation. We present a novel attempt to evaluate intervention strategies for particularly vulnerable species, age groups, time, and seasons.
Methods: In 2020, we conducted questionnaire surveys in two regions of the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal (Manang, n = 146 respondents and Upper Mustang, n = 183). We applied sample comparison testing, Jacobs’ selectivity index, and generalised linear models (GLMs) to assess rates and spatio-temporal heterogeneity of depredation, reveal vulnerable livestock groups, analyse potential effects of applied intervention strategies, and identify husbandry factors relevant to depredation.
Key results: Snow leopard predation was a major cause of livestock mortality in both regions (25.4–39.8%), resulting in an estimated annual loss of 3.2–3.6% of all livestock. The main intervention strategies (e.g. corrals during night-time and herding during daytime) were applied inconsistently and not associated with decreases in reported livestock losses. In contrast, we found some evidence that dogs, deterrents (light, music playing, flapping tape, and dung burning), and the use of multiple interventions were associated with a reduction in reported night-time depredation of yaks.
Conclusions and implications: We suggest conducting controlled randomised experiments for quantitative assessment of the effectiveness of dogs, deterrents, and the use of multiple interventions, and widely applying the most effective ones in local communities. This would benefit the long-term co-existence of snow leopards and humans in the Annapurna region and beyond. |
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1684 |
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Zahler, P.; Graham, P. |
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War and wildlife: the Afghanistan conflict and its effects on the environment |
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2001 |
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1-10 |
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war; wildlife; Afghanistan; conflict; effects; environment; International; international snow leopard trust; International-Snow-Leopard-Trust; snow; snow leopard; snow-leopard; leopard; trust; Islt; environmental; Organization; conservation; endangered; mountain; mountain ecosystem; mountain-ecosystem; ecosystem; approach; local; local people; people; Media; government; public; Report |
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The International Snow Leopard Trust (ISLT) is a nonprofit environmental organization dedicated to the conservation of the endangered snow leopard and its mountain ecosystem through a balanced approach that considers the needs of the local people and the environment. As such, we wish to stress that the ISLT does not have a position regarding the present conflict in Afghanistan. However, this organization believes that there are important repercussions regarding this conflict that have yet to be addressed in the media, within government circles, or among the public. This report documents some of these repercussions so that they may be included in the present dialog. |
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International Snow Leopard Trust |
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Seattle |
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ISLT special report. Peter Zahler from Wildlife Conservation Society & Peter Graham from ISLT. |
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SLN @ rana @ 975 |
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1067 |
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Jackson, R., Ahlborn, G.G. |
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Appendix: Snow leopard managment recommendations provided to HMG in: Himalayan Snow Leopard Project: Final Progress Report, Phase I. Report: 1-7. Himalayan |
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1986 |
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1-7 |
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action plan, CCT, conservation, Himalaya, human wildlife conflict, hunting, livestock, local participation, local people, management/protected |
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Preliminary recommendations for the management of snow leopard and its prey are provided for the Langu Valley segment of the Shey-Pkoksundo National Park. Park-wide and country-wide conservation options and management recommendations await results of the surveys scheduled for 1987. The following management objectives are formulated: 1) Protection and ultimate restoration of all natural communities within the area 2) Special protection measures for snow leopard and musk deer (strict control of hunting and livestock grazing) 3) Secure natural resources around local villages 4) Respect traditional rights of villagers, while controlling high impact human activities 5) Secure cooperation of local people. These objectives are refined and recommendations for concrete conservation actions are made.
Notes: document is a part of the Himalayan Snow Leopard Project: Final Progress Report, Phase I |
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1119 |
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Khan, J. |
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Availability of snow leopard pelt in Pakistan |
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2002 |
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snow leopard, Pakistan, pelt, wildlife trade |
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1246 |
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Hanson, J. H. |
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Household Conflicts with Snow Leopard Conservation and Impacts from Snow Leopards in the Everest and Annapurna Regions of Nepal |
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Environmental Management |
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1 of 12 |
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Human-wildlife conflict, Annapurna conservation area, Sagarmatha national park, South asia, Human-wildlife coexistence, Carnivores |
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Impacts on households from large carnivores are frequently reported in the conservation literature, but conflicts between households and large carnivore conservation are not. Employing a human-wildlife coexistence framework that distinguishes between human-wildlife impacts on one hand, and human-conservation conflicts on the other, this paper presents data from Annapurna Conservation Area and Sagarmatha (Everest) National Park, Nepal, each with different models of conservation governance. Using systematic sampling, quantitative information from 705 households was collected via questionnaires, while 70 semi-structured interviews were conducted with key informants for cross-methods triangulation. 7.7% of households reported conflicts with snow leopard conservation in the previous 12 months, primarily due to damage to livelihoods; these were significantly higher in the Annapurna region. 373 livestock were reported lost by households to snow leopards in the previous 12 months, representing 3.4% of total livestock owned and US$ 132,450 in financial value. Livestock losses were significantly lower in the Everest area. In linear regression models, total household livestock losses to all sources best explained conflicts with snow leopard conservation and household livestock losses to snow leopards but the models for the former dependent variable had very low explanatory power. Conservation in general, and large carnivore conservation in particular, should distinguish carefully between impacts caused by coexistence with these species and conflicts with conservation actors and over the methods and interventions used to conserve carnivores, especially where these negatively impact local livelihoods. In addition, livestock husbandry standards are highlighted again as an important factor in the success of carnivore conservation programmes. |
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