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Underwood, R. |
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Title |
The snow leopard, and its association with the dawn of wildlife management in India |
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2013 |
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Snow Leopard,wildlife management,colonial forestry,forest and land management |
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As part of a project looking at the history of ‘colonial forestry’ I have been studying forest and land management in India during the period from about 1860 to 1920. The subject is of interest because the forest conservation policies and management practices developed in India at that time later became a template for early forest policies and practices in Australia (where I have worked nearly all of my life as a forester), New Zealand, South Africa and the United States of America.
An unexpected outcome of my research was to find that 19th and early 20th century Indian foresters were also deeply concerned about Indian wildlife, and that in their published writings on this issue can be discerned some of the earliest concepts of professional wildlife management.
The outcome was unexpected because a notable aspect of forestry in India in the 19th century was the widespread love of hunting wild animals, or shikar, amongst officers of the Indian Forest Service. Sometimes this was done in the line of duty, a forester being called out to dispatch a rogue elephant or a man-eating tiger. But hunting was also regarded by many (especially those who had transferred from the Army into the Forest Service) as a sport, a contest between man and beast. And despite his firepower, it was a contest in which 19th century man did not always come out on top. |
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SLN @ rakhee @ |
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1392 |
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Author |
Rude, K. |
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Title |
Aiding the elusive snow leopard |
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Year |
1985 |
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Endangered Species Technical Bulletin Reprint |
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2 |
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3 |
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1-6 |
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snow leopard; management; resource |
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Wildland Management Center, School of Natural Resources, The University of Michigan. |
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Michigan |
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Special reprint issue. Wildland Management Center, School of Natural Resources, The University of Michigan. |
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Call Number |
SLN @ rana @ 989 |
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834 |
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Jackson, R., Ahlborn, G.G. |
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Appendix: Snow leopard managment recommendations provided to HMG in: Himalayan Snow Leopard Project: Final Progress Report, Phase I. Report: 1-7. Himalayan |
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1986 |
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1-7 |
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action plan, CCT, conservation, Himalaya, human wildlife conflict, hunting, livestock, local participation, local people, management/protected |
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Preliminary recommendations for the management of snow leopard and its prey are provided for the Langu Valley segment of the Shey-Pkoksundo National Park. Park-wide and country-wide conservation options and management recommendations await results of the surveys scheduled for 1987. The following management objectives are formulated: 1) Protection and ultimate restoration of all natural communities within the area 2) Special protection measures for snow leopard and musk deer (strict control of hunting and livestock grazing) 3) Secure natural resources around local villages 4) Respect traditional rights of villagers, while controlling high impact human activities 5) Secure cooperation of local people. These objectives are refined and recommendations for concrete conservation actions are made.
Notes: document is a part of the Himalayan Snow Leopard Project: Final Progress Report, Phase I |
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SLN @ rana @ |
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1119 |
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Author |
Jackson, R. |
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Title |
Community Participation: Tools and Examples |
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2000 |
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1-9 |
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community; workshop; wildlife; India; us; Himalayan; biodiversity; project; snow; snow leopard; snow-leopard; leopard; trust; management; planning; trans-himalayan; transhimalayan; protected; protected areas; protected area; protected-areas; protected-area; areas; area; 2000; leh; Ladakh |
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In response to dwindling wildlife populations and habitat, governments established national parks and protected areas, often with little input from people living in the immediate area. In some cases communities were relocated, but in most they are left to pursue traditional agricultural and pastoral livelihoods under a new set of rules. Important questions of land tenure remained unresolved, with a “fences and fines” approach to protected area management (Stolton and Dudley 1999). |
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Management Planning Workshop for the Trans-Himalayan Protected Areas, 25-29 August, 2000, Leh, Ladak |
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Workshop sponsored by the Wildlife Institute of India, US Fish and Wildlife Service Himalayan Biodiversity project, andInternational Snow Leopard Trust |
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SLN @ rana @ 1020 |
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467 |
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Author |
Wingard, J.R.; Zahler, P. |
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Title |
Silent Steppe: The Illegal Wildlife Trade Crisis in Mongolia |
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2006 |
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1-170 |
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steppe; illegal; wildlife; trade; Mongolia; study; threat; populations; population; areas; area; fur; fur trade; fur-trade; game; meat; hunting; Chain; impact; biodiversity; Biodiversity conservation; conservation; rural; livelihood; Wildlife-Management; management; survey; survey methods; methods; history; action; International; enforcement; domestic; community-based; approach |
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The current study in Mongolia is truly groundbreaking, in that it shows that the problem of commercial wildlife trade is also vast, unsustainable, and a major threat to wildlife populations in other areas. This paper's Executive Summary briefs the topics of wildlife trade in Mongolia, fur trade, medicinal trade, game meat trade, trophy and sport hunting, trade chains and markets, trade sustainability, impacts of wildlife trade on biodiversity conservation, impacts of trade on rural livelihoods, enabling wildlife management, and management recommendations. The main content of the paper includes: wildlife trade survey methods, a history of wildlife trade in Mongolia, wildlife take and trade today, enabling wildlife management, and recommendations and priority actions. The recommendations have been divided into six separate sections, including (1) cross-cutting recommendations, (2) international trade enforcement, (3) domestic trade enforcement, (4) hunting management, (5) trophy and sport hunting management, and (6) community-based approaches. Each section identifies short-term, long-term, and regulatory goals in order of priority within each subsection. |
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World Bank |
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Washington, D.C. |
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East Asia and Pacific Environment and Social Development Department |
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Mongolian version. English language translation is also available in the SLN bibliography. Mongolia Discussion Papers. East Asia and Pacific Environment and Social Development Department. Washington D.C.: World Bank. |
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SLN @ rana @ 1079 |
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1026 |
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Author |
Anonymous |
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Title |
Snow leopard management plan of Mongolia (draft) |
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Report |
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2000 |
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1-18 |
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snow; snow leopard; snow-leopard; leopard; management; plan; Mongolia; Report; world wildlife fund; world-wildlife-fund; wildlife; country; countries; Uvs; protected; protected area; protected-area; area; administration; nature; environment; 2000 |
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Report prepared in collaboration among the World Wildlife Fund Mongolia country office, Uvs Nuur Protected Area Administration, the Ministry of Nature and the Environment, and concerned agencies and individuals. March 2000. Draft. |
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SLN @ rana @ 993 |
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91 |
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Anonymous |
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Title |
A snow leopard conservation plan for Mongolia |
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Report |
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2000 |
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1-8 |
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awareness; behaviour; biodiversity; conservation plan; decline; density; ecology; fund-raising; funding; habitat degradation; Himalayan; management; Mongolia; montane; pastoralists; pelt; predator; snow-leopard-conservation-plan; snow leopard; trade; Wwf |
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The snow leopard faces multiple threats in the Himalayan region, from habitat degradation, loss of prey, the trade in pelts, parts and live animals, and conflict with humans, primarily pastoralists. Consequently, the populations are considered to be in decline and the species is listed as Endangered in the IUCN's Red List. As a 'flagship' and 'umbrella' species the snow leopard can be a unifying biological feature to raise awareness of its plight and the need for conservation, which will benefit other facets of Himalayan biodiversity as well. Some studies of snow leopards have been conducted in the Himalayan region. But, because of its elusive nature and preference for remote and inaccessible habitat, knowledge of the ecology and behaviour of this mystical montane predator is scant. The available information, however, suggests that snow leopards occur at low densities and large areas of habitat are required to conserve a viable population. Thus, many researchers and conservationists have advocated landscape-scale approaches to conservation within a regional context, rather than focusing on individual protected areas.This regional strategy for WWF's snow leopard conservation program is built on such an approach. The following were identified as important regional issues: 1) international trade in snow leopards and parts; 2) the human-snow leopard conflict; 3) the need for a landscape approach to conservation to provide large spatial areas that can support demographically and ecologically viable snow leopard metapopulations; 4) research on snow leopard ecology to develop long-term, science-based conservation management plans; and 5) regional coordination and dialog. While the issues are regional, the WWF's in the region have developed 5-year strategic actions and activities, using the regional strategies as a touchstone, which will be implemented at national levels. The WWF's will develop proposals based on these strategic actions, with estimated budgets, for use by the network for funding and fund-raising. WWF also recognizes the need to collaborate and coordinate within the network and with other organizations in the region to achieve conservation goals in an efficient manner, and will form a working group to coordinate activities and monitor progress. |
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Publication date unknown but must be at least from 2000. |
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SLN @ rana @ 995 |
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92 |
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Author |
Fox, J.L. |
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Snow leopard conservation in the wild – a comprehensive perspective on a low density and highly fragmented population |
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1994 |
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conservation; habitat; distribution; range; tibetan-plateau; Himalaya; Taklimakan-desert; Karakoram; Hindu-kush; Pamir; Kun-Lun; Tien-Shan; Altay; Cites; status; Afghanistan; Bhutan; China; India; Kazakhstan; Kyrgyzstan; Mongolia; Nepal; Pakistan; Russia; Tajikistan; Uzbekistan; protected-area; parks; park; reserve; refuge; research; management; kazakstan; browse; tibetan; plateau; taklimakan; desert; hindu; protected; area; 2630 |
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Islt |
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Usa |
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J.Fox; J.Du |
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Full text available at URLTitle, Monographic: Seventh International Snow Leopard SymposiumPlace of Meeting: ChinaDate of Copyright: 1994 |
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SLN @ rana @ 216 |
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304 |
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Raj, R.D. |
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A Green Chief Minister in a Green State |
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Miscellaneous |
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1999 |
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India; snow-leopard; management; ecology; parks; reserves; snow leopard; browse; 1050 |
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As chief minister of the Indian state of Sikkim, Pawan Kumar Chamling has the onerous job of protecting one of the hottest biodiversity properties in the world. Chamling has been more than equal to the task. Last month, he earned the title of “greenest chief minister” of India's 22 federal states for policies that range from banning plastic bags to cancelling a major hydro-electric project. |
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Copyright (c) 1999 Inter Press Service Journal Title: Inter Press Service |
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SLN @ rana @ 369 |
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803 |
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Jackson, P. |
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Title |
Villagers save predatory snow leopard |
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1998 |
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Cat News |
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28 |
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conservation education; damage; damage by wildlife; endangered; threatened species; mammals; management; wildlife; human relationships; relocation; goats; livestock; Pakistan; herders; prey; panthera uncia; browse; conservation; education; threatened; species; Human; relationships; panthera; uncia; 570 |
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A short report is presented on the capture and relocation of a snow leopard in northern Pakistan. Villagers discovered the leopard attacking their goats and captured it. WWF-Gilgit relocated the leopard to a remote area. slj. |
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AUTHOR ADDRESS: 1172 Bougy, Switzerland. tel/fax: +41 (021) 808-6012; e-mail: pjackson@iprolink.ch
Document Type: English |
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SLN @ rana @ 336 |
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430 |
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Chen, P., Gao, Y., Lee, A. T. L., Cering, L., Shi, K., Clark, S. G. |
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Title |
Human–carnivore coexistence in Qomolangma (Mt. Everest) Nature Reserve, China: Patterns and compensation |
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2016 |
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Biological Conservation |
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Conflict Compensation Human–carnivore coexistence Management Predation patterns Qomolangma Nature Reserve |
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Livestock depredation by large carnivores is frequently reported in Qomolangma (Mt. Everest) National Nature Reserve, Tibet Autonomous Region of China. Seeking to minimize conflicts, we assessed depredation patterns and ways to upgrade the compensation program. We gathered 9193 conflict records over 2011–2013 to determine the extent and tempo-spatial patterns of the depredation.Weinterviewed 22 local officials and 94 residents to learn their views on depredations and to assess the adequacy of compensation. Data showed that wolves (Canis lupus), lynx (Lynx lynx), and snowleopards (Panthera uncia)were themajor livestock predators. Total livestock
loss accounted for 1.2% of the entire stockholding (n=846,707) in the region. Wolves and lynx tended to take sheep and goats,whereas snowleopards favored yaks and cattle in relation to their proportional abundance. Predation mostly occurred in March through July. Livestock depredation by all predators when combined was best explained by terrain ruggedness and density of small- and large-bodied livestock. Temporal and spatial predation patterns variedamong carnivores.Most respondents (74%) attributed depredation causes to an increase in carnivore abundance. Only 7% blamed lax livestock herding practice for predation losses. Five percent said that
predation was the result of livestock population increases, while 11% had no idea. The compensation scheme was found to be flawed in all aspects—predation verification, application procedure, compensation standard, operational resource allocation, making payment, and other problems. To enhance management for human–carnivore coexistence, we recommend a problem-oriented, integrated, adaptive approach that targets the complex social context of the conflict and addresses the interconnected functions of decision-making process. |
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SLN @ rakhee @ |
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1435 |
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Author |
Fox, J.L. |
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Conflict between predators and people in Ladakh |
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1997 |
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Cat News |
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asia; India; behavior; endangered; threatened-species; mammals; management; predation; public relations; reserves; refuges; parks; wildlife; human-relationships; livestock; sheep; goats; prey; International-Snow-Leopard-Trust; protected-area; Hemis; browse; Islt; International; snow; leopard; trust; public; Relations; Human; relationships; protected; 640 |
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During a six-week period in Hemis National Park, Ladakh, India, snow leopards killed 10 sheep and goats and one leopard gained access to a livestock pen and killed many of the animals inside. Dholes also killed sheep and goats, and a wolf killed a young horse. Residents routinely remove snow leopard cubs from their dens to limit future damage by this species. How to deal with the plight of the people living in the area while still protecting the endangered species are major concerns of the International Snow Leopard Trust, which manages Hemis National Park. lgh. |
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AUTHOR ADDRESS: Dep. Ecol./Zool., IBG Univ. Tromso, Tromso, Norway, ORIGINAL SOURCE: Snow Leopard News, Autumn 1997
Document Type: English
Call Number: WR99-007446 |
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SLN @ rana @ 309 |
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310 |
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Author |
Heinen, J.T.; Metha, J.C. |
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Title |
Conceptual and legal issues in the designation and management of conservation areas in Nepal |
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Journal Article |
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1999 |
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Environmental Conservation |
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26 |
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21-29 |
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Nepal; conservation; protected area; management; browse; 70 |
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The modern era of wildlife and protected area conservation in Nepal began in 1973 with the passage of comprehensive legislation, and has evolved very quickly as new priorities and problems have emerged. Here we explore the legal and managerial development of conservation areas, a recently-defined category of protected area designed to promote conservation through local-level participation and development. A review of the Conservation Area Management Regulations of 1996 shows that there are several potential problems inherent in this designation. As written, the regulations move power from the government to organizations under governmental contract. Thus, management authority largely remains top-down from the standpoint of local users. We also question how well the designation will protect some sensitive wildlife species, since organizations do not have law enforcement authority under Nepalese legislation.
Despite these concerns, there have been several successful conservation area programmes in existence in Nepal since the 1980s and most of the issues addressed are surmountable with the current regulations, providing that several criteria are met. We propose that His Majesty's Government and organizations under contract develop more definitive methods of disbursing funds for local-level projects, and institute social impact assessments. In addition, more attention must be paid to wildlife law enforcement; independent assessments of important wild populations and unique habitats are needed. Finally, we discuss some broader issues that should be better addressed in Nepal and elsewhere, including cross-sectoral coordination within the government. |
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Document Type: English |
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SLN @ rana @ 361 |
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377 |
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Author |
Kattel, B.; Bajimaya, S.S. |
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Title |
Status and Conservation of Snow Leopard in Nepal |
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1997 |
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21-27 |
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Nepal; conservation; status; management; predator; prey; blue-sheep; distribution; ecology; habitat; parks; park; reserves; reserve; refuge; livestock; herders; Dogs; herder; yak; goat; hunting; poaching; bone; trade; fur; pelt; pelts; coats; bones; protected-area; blue; sheep; browse; protected; area; protected area; 2280 |
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International Snow Leopard Trust |
Place of Publication |
Lahore, Pakistan |
Editor |
R.Jackson; A.Ashiq |
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Full Text at URLTitle, Monographic: Eighth International Snow Leopard SymposiumPlace of Meeting: Islamabad, PakistanDate of Copyright: 1997 |
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SLN @ rana @ 316 |
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526 |
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Author |
McCarthy, T.; Allen, P. |
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Title |
Knitting for snow leopards |
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Journal Article |
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1999 |
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Cat News |
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30 |
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24-25 |
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conservation-programs; endangered; threatened-species; human-dimensions; management; conservation; asia; Mongolia; herder; herding; herders; browse; threatened; species; programs; Human; dimensions.; 1040 |
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The authors describe an innovative conservation program for the endangered snow leopard. A program was established in which herding families in Mongolia knit scarves, gloves, and hats from camel, sheep, and cashmere wool for sale as eco-friendly products. The program increases family incomes, brings in revenue for conservation programs, and educates the herders on the leopards. klf. |
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Full Text at URL. Author Contact: 4649 Sunnyside Ave N. ,Suite 325, Seattle Wa 98103Document Type: English |
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SLN @ rana @ 368 |
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659 |
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Author |
Norbu, U.P. |
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Title |
Status and Conservation of Snow Leopard In Bhutan |
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Conference Article |
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1997 |
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28-34 |
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Bhutan; livestock; predation; prey; parks; park; reserve; reserves; refuge; poaching; hunting; status; distribution; education; conservation; management; yaks; protected-area; browse; protected; area; 2420 |
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International Snow Leopard Trust |
Place of Publication |
Lahore, India |
Editor |
R.Jackson; A.Ahmad |
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Full Text at URLTitle, Monographic: Eighth International Snow Leopard SymposiumPlace of Meeting: Islamabad, PakistanDate of Copyright: 1997 |
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SLN @ rana @ 321 |
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725 |
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Author |
Jackson, R. |
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Title |
People-Wildlife Conflict Management in the Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet |
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Conference Article |
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1998 |
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Tibet's Biodiversity: Conservation and Management.Proceedings of a Conference, August 30-September 4 |
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40-46 |
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conflict; conflict management; management; Qomolangma; nature; preserve; Tibet; primary; Report; conflicts; damage; livestock; livestock depredation; livestock-depredation; depredation; reserve; protected; endangered; endangered mammals; mammals; biodiversity; conservation |
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The primary objective of this paper is to report on people-wildlife conflicts arising from crop damage and livestock depredation in the Qomolangma Reserve, with special reference to the management of protected and endangered mammals. |
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Tibet Forestry Department and World Wide Fund for Nature. China Forestry Publishing House. |
Place of Publication |
China |
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Ning, W.; Miller, D.; Zhu, L.; Springer, J. |
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Tibet's Biodiversity: Conservation and Management. |
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188 pages in proceedings. |
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SLN @ rana @ 1013 |
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461 |
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Sloane, A.; Kelly, C.; McDavitt, S.; Marples, N. |
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Title |
Big cats in captivity: a quantitative analysis of enrichment |
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1998 |
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Adv.Etho |
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33 |
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43 |
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abnormal-behavior; behavior; captive-animal-care; endangered; threatened-species; zoos; enrichment; abnormal; captive; Animal; care; threatened; species; browse; 1280; study; big; big cats; Cats; cat; zoo; effects; Lions; lion; jaguar; snow; snow leopards; snow leopard; snow-leopards; snow-leopard; leopards; leopard; behaviour; using; activity; activities; change; presence; enclosures; range; scent; cage; horse; hides; management |
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Studies on three species of big cats at Dublin Zoo have led to firm conclusions about the effects of certain forms of enrichment, some of which will be presented here. Lions, jaguars, and snow leopards were studied over two years and their behaviours quantified using focal animal sampling during selected hours during daylight. By comparison of these activity budgets with and without the enrichments being present, it was possible to identify the exact behavioural changes caused by each enrichment method, and to quantify these changes. In this contribution we present results showing that the presence of a platform in both lion and jaguar enclosures dramatically reduced stereotypic pacing behaviour. We will demonstrate that the effects of short term enrichment devices may have a wide range of effects on behaviours which outlast the presence of the stimulus. For instance scents added to the cage, or food/play items such as horse hides, hidden fish or ice-blocks often reduce pacing and increase resting later in the day, even after the cats have ceased using the enrichment items. This reduction in pacing and increase in resting time often meant that the amount of the enclosure used per hour was actually reduced with the presence of new stimuli, as result opposite to what might have been expected. The results of these studies will be discussed in relation to effective animal management. |
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WILDLIFE REVIEW ABSTRACTS (“Contributions to the International Symposium on Physiology and Ethology of Wild and Zoo Animals, Berlin, Germany, 7-10 October 1998”; Hofer, Heribert; Pitra, Christian; Hofmann, Reinhold R., editors). |
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SLN @ rana @ 349 |
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897 |
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Author |
Heinen, J.T.; Mehta, J. |
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Title |
Emerging issues in legal and procedural aspects of buffer zone management with case studies from Nepal |
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2000 |
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Journal of Environment and Development |
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45-67 |
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conservation; legal; management; Nepal; park; participatory; protected area; regulations |
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Buffer zones have been used as part of larger integrated conservation development programs to provide the benefits of ecological buffering of protected areas and socioeconomic buffering of neighboring communities. The authors explore the legal and managerial development of buffer zones internationally and with the passage of a conservation amendment in Nepal. A review of Nepal's buffer zone policies and several ongoing projects shows that there are several potential inherent problems. As written, regulations tend to expand the authority of the state by imposing restrictions in populated areas formerly not under control of park officials. Some participatory rights are provided to citizens, but management authority largely remains top down from the standpoint of local users. The authors question whether the managerial and research capacities exist to monitor buffer zones for their effectiveness both for conservation and development purposes and make several recommendations to improve implementation. |
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SLN @ rana @ 939 |
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378 |
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Author |
Ming, M. |
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Title |
The Problems About Conservation of Wildlife Animals In Xinjiang |
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2001 |
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Arid Land Geography |
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24 |
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1 |
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47-51 |
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China; conservation; development; distribution; ecosystem; management; nature reserves; protected areas; species diversity; Xinjiang |
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As an important part of the ecosystem in the world, the wild are highly sensitive to impel the public to pay an increasing attention to the vertebrates and their habitats. The region from Xinjiang to Central Asian countries and from north China to Mongolia, explored less by zoologists. The region is mainly consisted of deserts and high mountain ranges many lakes and rivers that provide the suitable habitats for wildlife. These are actually unknown. Conservation in the modern sense is a very important part of development, especially in the Western Development of China. This paper deals with the species diversity and vertebrates' conservation in Xinjiang. Since 1980, over 20 Iocal nature reserves and 4 nationaI nature reserves have been established in Xinjiang. There are about 700 vertebrate species (in 5 classesœª37 ordersœr97 familiesœª196 genera) in Xinjiang. These cover about 134 species of mammalsœª392® 430 species of birdsœr40® 45 species of reptilesœª6® 7 species of amphibians and 93® 120 fishes. With the rapid economic development, some protected areas exist only in name. The areas are not only havens for wild species, but also maintain ecological benefits. Xinjiang is a very special region in China. The wild animals are different from those in other provinces along the east coast and in the interior. There are many questions about the conservation of wild animals in Xinjiang, e.g. the threatened species distinguishing, distribution and management, etc. So the paper is for reference only to the Great Development of Western China. |
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In Chinese. |
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SLN @ rana @ 536 |
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679 |
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Author |
Freeman, H.; Hutchins, M. |
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Title |
Captive Management of Snow Leopard Cubs |
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1978 |
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Der Zoologischer Garten |
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48 |
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49-62 |
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captivity; management; zoo; zoos; cubs; rearing; browse; 3610 |
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SLN @ rana @ 45 |
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315 |
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Jackson, R.; Ahlborn, G. |
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The role of protected areas in Nepal in maintaining viable populations of snow leopards |
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1990 |
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Int.Ped.Book of Snow Leopards |
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6 |
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51-69 |
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Nepal; conservation; management; parks; park; reserve; refuge; protected-area; browse; protected area; protected; area; island-biology-theory; population-limits; habitat; suitability; 3040 |
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Full text at URL |
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SLN @ rana @ 165 |
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444 |
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Fox, J.L. |
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Rangeland management and wildlife conservation in the HKH |
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1997 |
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Hindukush; himalayans; management; conservation; browse; 1880 |
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D.J.Miller; S.R.Craig |
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ICIMOD, Katmandu
Title, Monographic: Rangelands and Pastoral Development in the Hindukush-Himalayas. Proceedings of the regional experts meeting
Place of Meeting: Katmandu, Nepal
Date of Copyright: 1997 |
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SLN @ rana @ 308 |
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309 |
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Marma, B.B.; Yunchis, V.V. |
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Observations on the breeding, management and physiology of Snow leopards (Panthera u. uncia) at Kaunas Zoo from 1962 to 1967 |
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1968 |
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Canids and Felids in Captivity |
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observations; breeding; management; physiology; snow; snow leopards; snow leopard; snow-leopards; snow-leopard; leopards; leopard; panthera; uncia; zoo; felids; captivity |
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Zoological Society of London |
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Jarvis, C.; Biegler, R. |
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SLN @ rana @ 1004 |
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649 |
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Fox, J.L.; Nurbu, C. |
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Hemis, a national park for snow leopards in India's Trans-Himalaya |
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1990 |
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Int.Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards |
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6 |
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protected-area; Hemis; park; parks; refuge; reserve; India; Himalaya; protected; area; areas; protected areas; protected area; browse; Jammu; Kashmir; habitat; tourism; land-use; humans; developement; conflict; management; 3170 |
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Full text available at URL |
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SLN @ rana @ 155 |
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296 |
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