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Anonymous. (1992). International Specialists Discuss China's Threatened Cats. |
Alexander, J. S., Agvaantseren, B., Gongor, E., Mijiddorj, T. N., Piaopiao, T., Stephen Redpath, S., Young, J., Mishra, C. (2021). Assessing the Effectiveness of a Community-based Livestock Insurance Program. Environmental Management, . |
Spearing, A. (2002). The Snow Leopard in Zanskar, Jammu & Kashmir, NW India.. Islt: Islt.
Abstract: The paper summarises the alleged conflict between livestock herders and wild predators in the trans-Himalayan region of Zanskar, NW India. The snow leopard (Uncia uncia) is seriously threatened by this conflict, with at least thirteen killed in the last seven years in 3 of the study villages alone. Results of snow leopard sign surveys are described, revealing significant increases since the last survey (1986) consistent with alleged increases in livestock depredation. Attitudes toward wildlife and opinions on population trends are assessed. Depredation hotspots are identified and the cost of livestock predation is
discussed in terms of recent developments and social changes in the Zanskar region. Illegal hunting and retaliatory killing are described, and essential programs and conservation measures are suggested. Even at this early stage, there appears scope for raising rural incomes and lifting the burden of co-existence with snow leopard and other unique mountain fauna. |
International Snow Leopard Trust. (2000). Snow Leopard News Spring 2000. Seattle, Wa: Islt.
Keywords: Rutherford; Freeman; Morse; Jackson; Hillard; Natural-Partnerships-Program; Pakistan; Islt; Slims; training; Chitrol-Gol; parks; preserves; reserves; protected-areas; surveys; Hemis; Conflict-Resolution-Workshop; conflict; herders; leh; Jammu; Kashmir; Ladakh; corrals; predator; prey; livestock; depradation; human-wildlife-conflict; Uzbekistan; Gissar; Peace-Corps; Mongolia; Macne; fiction; populations; browse; 4390
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McCarthy, T. (2000). Snow Leopards in Mongolia.
Keywords: Mongolia; distribution; status; irbis; irbis-enterprises; herders; livestock; economy; conservation; gobi; habitat; Disease; depredation; conflict; predator; prey; hunting; poaching; skins; pelts; coats; furs; bones; trade; Macne; habitat-fragmentation; browse; enterprises; fragmentation; habitat fragmentation; 4090
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McCarthy, T. (2000). Snow Leopard Conservation Comes of Age. |
McCarthy, T. (1999). Snow Leopard Conservation Plan for the Republic of Mongolia.
Keywords: Mongolia; conservation; legal-status; Iunc; Cites; distribution; status; Altay; gobi; parks; preserves; habitat; reserves; refuge; protected-area; poaching; hunting; trade; furs; pelts; skins; coats; bones; trapping; livestock; herders; killing; habitat-fragmentation; threats; Disease; prey; diet; Mne; laws; education; management; Macne; Wwf; Islt; regulations; monitoring; Slims; tourism; conflict; browse; legal status; legal; protected; area; fragmentation; world wildlife fund; international snow leopard trust; 3890
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Jackson, R., Wangchuk, R., & Hillard, D. (2002). Grassroots Measures to Protect the Endangered Snow Leopard from Herder Retribution: Lessons Learned from Predator-Proofing Corrals in Ladahh.. Islt: Islt.
Abstract: Livestock depredation is an increasingly contentious issue across the range of the
endangered snow leopard (Uncia uncia). Depredation is most severe in or near protected areas offering core habitat for this cat. “Surplus killing,” in which as many as 100 sheep and goats have been killed in a single night, inevitably results in attempts at retaliatory killing of predators by herders suffering significant loss. Ironically, such predation by snow leopard, wolf, or lynx can be avoided by adequately predator-proofing nighttime enclosures. Predation on the open range is far more difficult to address, but may be reduced to acceptable levels through improved day-time guarding of livestock, educating herders on the importance of protecting the predator's natural prey base, and by providing economic incentives to help offset unavoidable loss. This paper describes community-based initiatives being undertaken in India's Hemis National Park aimed at predator-proofing livestock corrals and encouraging local herders to become more effective stewards of the snow leopard, its prey and habitat. A highly participatory, 4-step process known as Appreciative Participatory Planning and Action (APPA) provides the primary mechanism for assisting communities to develop Action Plans to reduce livestock depredation losses, increase household incomes, and strengthen environmental stewardship. Herders are informed about the Snow Leopard Stewardship program and conditions for a successful outcome. The team, comprised of local people, NGO staff, facilitators and government officials, first identifies the root causes for depredation (Discovery). Under the next phase, Dreaming, participants envision how their village might appear if depredation losses were reduced to acceptable levels, household incomes increased, and snow leopards fully protected. This provides a good basis upon which to collaboratively devise actions for addressing the community's concerns (Design). Delivery involves implementing actions under the overall Action Plan, as well as specific measures that can be acted upon immediately. The community is encouraged to use simple but realistic indicators for monitoring the project's effectiveness. In Lessons Learned to Date, we highlight the importance of providing meaningful community involvement from inception through project implementation and monitoring. The use of _APPA _greatly increases ownership, communal empowerment and self-reliance, and local people's willingness to protect wildlife. The Snow Leopard Conservancy believes that the most effective conservation actions will be contingent upon (1) establishing direct linkages with biodiversity protection; (2) ensuring reciprocal co-financing and commensurate responsibility from the community; (3) encouraging full participation from all stakeholders irrespective of their gender, age or economic status; and (4) ensuring regular monitoring and evaluation under an agreed-to Action Plan that sets forth the responsibilities, contributions and obligations of each partner. |
Jackson, R. (2000). The Snow Leopard Conservancy, Dedicated to demonstrating innovative, grassroots measures that lead local shepherds to become better stewards of the endangered snow leopard, its prey and habitat. |
Jackson, R. (1999). Managing people-wildlife conflict in Tibet's Qomolangma National Nature Preserve.
Keywords: Qomolangma; livestock; Tibet; predator; predation; prey; protected-areas; parks; reserves; conflict; corrals; pens; depredation; livestock-depredation; browse; livestock depredation; protected; area; areas; protected area; protected areas; 4020
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Jackson, R. (1995). Third Slims Workshop held in Mongolia (Vol. xiii). Seattle: Islt. |
Jackson, R. (1994). Second SLIMS Workshop Held (Vol. xii). Seattle, WA: Islt. |
Jackson, R. (1992). SSC Plan for Snow Leopard.
Keywords: physiology; status; distribution; description; behavior; reproduction; mating; breeding; vocalization; gestation; biology; habitat; scrapes; sprays; scat; feces; longevity; homerange; home-range; prey; diet; Cites; Iunc; parks; preserves; reserves; refuge; protected-areas; movements; activity; livestock; herders; depredation; conflict; trade; poaching; hunting; research; captivity; management; zoos; Slims; surveys; transects; browse; home range; home; range; protected area; protected areas; protected; area; areas; 3920; plan; snow; snow leopard; snow-leopard; leopard
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Inayat, S. (2002). Role of Women In Conservation of Snow Leopard In Pakistan.. Islt: Islt.
Abstract: Generally speaking, men and women are the two wheels of the same vehicle. Women's
participation and involvement in the conservation of snow leopards is as indispensable as it is to any other discipline. Unfortunately, their dual role was not exploited and so the involvement of women in nature conservation is considered almost inappropriate and not up to the mark. Mountainous people still live with their centuries old traditions and culture. Although with the passage of time they are leaning towards modernization, still most of them are associated with the centuries-old tradition of keeping livestock. These people take their livestock to the pastures and thus share in the snow leopard's habitat. A large number of livestock grazing in the snow leopard's habitat attracts this opportunistic animal to attack domestic animals. This is the point where the conflict between snow leopards and livestock owners starts, with the snow leopard killed in retaliation. Snow leopard depredation causes economic losses to the herders and women, being the managers of the house, take the maximum impact. Keeping this fact in view, a study was undertaken in the two demonstration sites of the snow leopard project in Chitral and Gilgit. A specific questionnaire was used and information was collected from all the women herders in the two demo sites. The study revealed that women have positive attitudes toward and feel love for this precious animal. |
Allen, P., & Macray, D. (2002). Snow Leopard Enterprises Description and Summarized Business Plan.. Seattle: Islt.
Abstract: The habitat for both humans and snow leopards in Central Asia is marginal, the ecosystem fragile. The struggle for humans to survive has often, unfortunately, brought them into conflict with the region's dwindling snow leopard populations. Herders commonly see leopards as a threat to their way of life and well-being. Efforts to improve the living conditions of humans must consider potential impacts on the environment. Likewise, conservation initiatives cannot ignore humans as elements of the landscape with a right to live with dignity and pride. Based on these principles, the International Snow Leopard Trust has developed a new conservation model that addresses the needs of all concerned.
We call it Snow Leopard Enterprises.. Keywords: snow; leopard; enterprises; buisness; plan; habitat; humans; conflict; irbis; products; wool; conservation; marketing; Mongolia; social; economic; conflicts; country; countries; socks; hats; gloves; 4890; Human; snow leopards; snow leopard; snow-leopards; snow-leopard; leopards; central; Central Asia; asia; ecosystem; region; populations; population; herders; herder; threat; potential; impact; environment; Elements; landscape; International; international snow leopard trust; International-Snow-Leopard-Trust; trust; snow-leopard-enterprises
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Hussain, S. Shafqat Hussain Research Proposal for Pakistan. |
Hussain, I. (1999). Conserving Biodiversity through Institutional Diversity: Concept Paper.
Keywords: Iunc; status; distribution; Baltistan; Pakistan; herders; farmers; conservation; killing; poaching; conflict; livestock; predator; prey; retaliatory-killing; economy; corral; capture; trapping; Project-snow-leopard; ecotourism; tourism; compensation; markhor; trekking; browse; retaliatory; 3910
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Anonymous. (1999). Livestock Predation Control Workshop.
Keywords: Lahul-Spiti; Ladakh; Hemis; parks; reserves; refuge; protected-area; argali; abix; blue-sheep; wolves; distribution; status; population; poaching; hunting; trade; skins; livestock; pelts; coat; fur; bones; medicine; prey-depletion; herders; habitat; habitat-degradation; tourism; Tmi; Islt; predator; prey; conflict; compensation; trekking; blue; sheep; browse; protected; area; depletion; degradation; international snow leopard trust; 3940
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Gurung, G. T. K. (2004). Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia) and Human Interaction in Phoo Village in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal.
Abstract: Phoo village in the Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) in Nepal is located at 4,052 m als physically
in the central north of the country. Livestock keeping is the main activity of the people for making a living amidst a conflict with snow leopard (Uncia uncia). Each year snow leopard kills a number of livestock resulting significant economic losses for the poor people living in this remote area. Unless the people – snow leopard conflict is well understood and appropriate conflict management activities are implemented, the long run co-existence between people and snow leopard – especially the existence of snow leopard in this part of the world -will be in question. This has now become an utmost important as the aspiration of the people for economic development has risen significantly and the area has been opened to tourism since spring 2002. In addition to this, the globalisation process has directly and indirectly affected the traditional resource management practices and co-existence strategies of many traditional societies including Phoo. The livestock depredation for 3 years (2001 – 2004) by snow leopard was studied by interviewing the herders to understand the responsible and specific bio-physical and socio-economic factors. The study revealed that goats are most depredated species followed by sheep. Winter months (January – April) and winter pastures are most vulnerable to snow leopard predation. Presence of bushes, forest and boulders make good hides for snow leopard resulting into high depredation. The study also showed that a lax animal guarding system was significantly responsible for high livestock depredation by snow leopard. The study showed that improvement in livestock guarding system should be adopted as the most important activity. However despite the importance of livestock in the economy of Phoo it is still not well understood why the herders neglect for proper livestock guarding. This requires further study. Proper guarding system is required especially in winter season in winter pastures. It is also suggested that there should be changes in the composition of livestock species by promoting more yaks and discouraging or minimising goats. Yaks and large animals are less depredated and small animals like goats and sheep are highly depredated by snow leopard. A trend was also observed in Phoo village where there is an increase in the number of yaks and a decrease in the number of goats over last few years. This could be a management response of the herders to livestock depredation. Other protective measures of the livestock at the corrals have also been recommended including promotion of guard dogs and other measures. Since the area is opened for tourism, it is suggested that the tourism opportunity for the economic development of the area should be grasped so that the heavy dependence on livestock raising would be minimised. This will help minimise the number of human – snow leopard conflicts. Keywords: phoo; annapurna conservation area; Nepal; livestock; human interaction; conflict management; yaks; goats; sheep; horse; corral; 5280
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Din, J. U., Ali, H., Ali, A., Younus, M., Mehmood,, T., Rashid, Y. N., Nawaz, M. A. (2017). Pastoralist-predator interaction at the roof of the world: Conflict dynamics and implications for conservation. Ecology and Society, 22(2).
Abstract: Pastoralism and predation are two major concomitantly known facts and matters of concern for conservation biologists worldwide. Pastoralist-predator conflict constitutes a major social-ecological concern in the Pamir mountain range encompassing Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Tajikistan, and affects community attitudes and tolerance toward carnivores. Very few studies have been conducted to understand the dynamics of livestock predation by large carnivores like snow leopards (Panthera uncia) and wolves (Canis
lupus), owing to the region�s remoteness and inaccessibility. This study attempts to assess the intensity of livestock predation (and resulting perceptions) by snow leopards and wolves across the Afghani, Pakistani, and Tajik Pamir range during the period January 2008�June 2012. The study found that livestock mortality due to disease is the most serious threat to livestock (an average 3.5 animal heads per household per year) and ultimately to the rural economy (an average of US$352 per household per year) as compared to predation (1.78 animal heads per household per year, US$191) in the three study sites. Overall, 1419 (315 per year) heads of livestock were reportedly killed by snow leopards (47%) and wolves (53%) in the study sites. People with comparatively smaller landholdings and limited earning options, other than livestock rearing, expressed negative attitudes toward both wolves and snow leopards and vice versa. Education was found to be an effective solution to dilute people�s hatred for predators. Low public tolerance of the wolf and snow leopard in general explained the magnitude of the threat facing predators in the Pamirs. This will likely continue unless tangible and informed conservation measures like disease control and predation compensation programs are taken among others. Keywords: Afghan Pamir; carnivore; conflict; Pak Pamir; pastoralist; predation; snow leopard; Tajik Pamir; wolf
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Fox, J. L., Sinya, S. P., Chundawat, R. S., & Das, P. K. (1986). A Survey of Snow Leopard and Associated Species in the Himalaya of Northwestern India, Project Completion Report.
Keywords: Himalaya; India; prey; distribution; Arunachal; Jammu; Himachal-Pradesh; Uttar-Pradesh; Sikkim; hunting; poaching; pelts; livestock; surveys; field-work; herders; herding; parks; preserves; reserves; habiatat; conflict; human-interaction; behaviour; sanctuaries; scrapes; sprays; tracks; browse; 4220
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Filla, M., Lama, R. P., Filla, T., Heurich, M., Balkenhol, N., Waltert, M., Khorozyan, I. (2022). Patterns of livestock depredation by snow leopards and effects of intervention strategies: lessons from the Nepalese Himalaya. Wildlife Research, .
Abstract: Context: Large carnivores are increasingly threatened by anthropogenic activities, and their protection is among the main goals of biodiversity conservation. The snow leopard (Panthera uncia) inhabits high-mountain landscapes where livestock depredation drives it into conflicts with local people and poses an obstacle for its conservation.
Aims: The aim of this study was to identify the livestock groups most vulnerable to depredation, target them in implementation of practical interventions, and assess the effectiveness of intervention strategies for conflict mitigation. We present a novel attempt to evaluate intervention strategies for particularly vulnerable species, age groups, time, and seasons. Methods: In 2020, we conducted questionnaire surveys in two regions of the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal (Manang, n = 146 respondents and Upper Mustang, n = 183). We applied sample comparison testing, Jacobs’ selectivity index, and generalised linear models (GLMs) to assess rates and spatio-temporal heterogeneity of depredation, reveal vulnerable livestock groups, analyse potential effects of applied intervention strategies, and identify husbandry factors relevant to depredation. Key results: Snow leopard predation was a major cause of livestock mortality in both regions (25.4–39.8%), resulting in an estimated annual loss of 3.2–3.6% of all livestock. The main intervention strategies (e.g. corrals during night-time and herding during daytime) were applied inconsistently and not associated with decreases in reported livestock losses. In contrast, we found some evidence that dogs, deterrents (light, music playing, flapping tape, and dung burning), and the use of multiple interventions were associated with a reduction in reported night-time depredation of yaks. Conclusions and implications: We suggest conducting controlled randomised experiments for quantitative assessment of the effectiveness of dogs, deterrents, and the use of multiple interventions, and widely applying the most effective ones in local communities. This would benefit the long-term co-existence of snow leopards and humans in the Annapurna region and beyond. |
Maheshwari, A., Sathyakumar, S. (2019). Snow leopard stewardship in mitigating human-wildlife conflict in Hemis National Park, Ladakh, India. Human Dimensions of Wildlife, , 1–5.
Abstract: Among large predators, snow leopards (Panthera uncia) and co-predators (e.g., wolves
Canis lupus, lynx Lynx lynx) often cause economic losses, engendering animosity from local communities in the mountain ecosystem across south and central Asia (Din et al., 2017; Jackson & Lama, 2016; Maheshwari, Takpa, Kujur, & Shawl, 2010; Schaller, 2012). These economic losses range from around US $50 to nearly $300 per household, a significant sum given per capita annual incomes of $250 – $400 (Jackson & Wangchuk, 2004; Mishra, 1997). Recent efforts such as improved livestock husbandry practices (predator-proof livestock corrals – closed night shelters with covered roof with wiremesh and a closely fitting iron or wooden door that can be securely locked at night) and community-based ecotourism (e.g., home stays, guides, porters, pack animals, campsites) are providing alternative livelihood opportunities and mitigating large carnivores – human conflict in the snow leopard habitats (Hanson, Schutgens, & Baral, 2018; Jackson, 2015; Jackson & Lama, 2016; Vannelli, Hampton, Namgail, & Black, 2019). Snow leopard-based ecotourism provides an opportunity to secure livelihoods and reduce poverty of the communities living in ecotourism sites across Ladakh (Chandola, 2012; Jackson, 2015). To understand the role of snow leopard-based ecotourism in uplifting the financial profile of local communities, mitigating large carnivore – human conflict and eventually changing attitudes towards large carnivores in Hemis National Park, Ladakh, India, we compared the estimated financial gains of a snow leopard-based ecotourism to stated livestock predation losses by snow leopards and wolves. Keywords: Snow leopard; human-wildlife conflict; ecotourism; livelihood; India
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Suryawanshi, K. R., Bhatia, S., Bhatnagar, Y. V., Redpath, S., Mishra, C. (2014). Multiscale Factors Affecting Human Attitudes toward Snow Leopards and Wolves. Conservation biology, 00, 1–10.
Abstract: The threat posed by large carnivores to livestock and humans makes peaceful coexistence between
them difficult. Effective implementation of conservation laws and policies depends on the attitudes of local residents toward the target species. There are many known correlates of human attitudes toward carnivores, but they have only been assessed at the scale of the individual. Because human societies are organized hierarchically, attitudes are presumably influenced by different factors at different scales of social organization, but this scale dependence has not been examined.We used structured interview surveys to quantitatively assess the attitudes of a Buddhist pastoral community toward snow leopards (Panthera uncia) and wolves (Canis lupus). We interviewed 381 individuals from 24 villages within 6 study sites across the high-elevation Spiti Valley in the Indian Trans-Himalaya. We gathered information on key explanatory variables that together captured variation in individual and village-level socioeconomic factors.We used hierarchical linear models to examine how the effect of these factors on human attitudes changed with the scale of analysis from the individual to the community. Factors significant at the individual level were gender, education, and age of the respondent (for wolves and snow leopards), number of income sources in the family (wolves), agricultural production, and large-bodied livestock holdings (snow leopards). At the community level, the significant factors included the number of smaller-bodied herded livestock killed by wolves and mean agricultural production (wolves) and village size and large livestock holdings (snow leopards). Our results show that scaling up from the individual to higher levels of social organization can highlight important factors that influence attitudes of people toward wildlife and toward formal conservation efforts in general. Such scale-specific information can help managers apply conservation measures at appropriate scales. Our results reiterate the need for conflict management programs to be multipronged. |
Khanal, G., Mishra, C., Suryawanshi, K. R. (2020). Relative influence of wild prey and livestock abundance on
carnivore-caused livestock predation. Ecology and Evolution, , 1–11.
Abstract: Conservation conflict over livestock depredation is one of the
key drivers of large mammalian carnivore declines worldwide. Mitigating this conflict requires strategies informed by reliable knowledge of factors influencing livestock depredation. Wild prey and livestock abundance are critical factors influencing the extent of livestock depredation. We compared whether the extent of livestock predation by snow leopards Panthera uncia differed in relation to densities of wild prey, livestock, and snow leopards at two sites in Shey Phoksundo National Park, Nepal. We used camera trap-based spatially explicit capture–recapture models to estimate snow leopard density; double-observer surveys to estimate the density of their main prey species, the blue sheep Pseudois nayaur; and interview-based household surveys to estimate livestock population and number of livestock killed by snow leopards. The proportion of livestock lost per household was seven times higher in Upper Dolpa, the site which had higher snow leopard density (2.51 snow leopards per 100 km2) and higher livestock density (17.21 livestock per km2) compared to Lower Dolpa (1.21 snow leopards per 100 km2; 4.5 livestock per km2). The wild prey density was similar across the two sites (1.81 and 1.57 animals per km2 in Upper and Lower Dolpa, respectively). Our results suggest that livestock depredation level may largely be determined by the abundances of the snow leopards and livestock and predation levels on livestock can vary even at similar levels of wild prey density. In large parts of the snow leopard range, livestock production is indispensable to local livelihoods and livestock population is expected to increase to meet the demand of cashmere. Hence, we recommend that any efforts to increase livestock populations or conservation initiatives aimed at recovering or increasing snow leopard population be accompanied by better herding practices (e.g., predator-proof corrals) to protect livestock from snow leopard. |