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Bischof, R., Hameed, S., Ali, H., Kabir, M., Younas, M., Shah, K. A., Din, J. U., Nawaz, M. A. (2013). Using time-to-event analysis to complement hierarchical methods when assessing determinants of photographic detectability during camera trapping. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, .
Abstract: 1. Camera trapping, paired with analytical methods for estimating occupancy, abundance and other ecological parameters, can yield information with direct consequences for wildlife management and conservation. Although ecological information is the primary target of most camera trap studies, detectability influences every aspect from design to interpretation.
2. Concepts and methods of time-toevent analysis are directly applicable to camera trapping, yet this statistical field has thus far been ignored as a way to analyze photographic capture data. to illustrate the use to time-to-event statistics and to better understand how photographic evidence accumulates, we explored patterns in tow related measure of detectability: Detection probability and time to detection. We analyzed camera trap data for three sympatric carnivores ( snow Leopard, red fox and stone marten) in the mountains of northern Pakistan and tested predictions about patterns in detectability across species, sites and time. 3. We found species-specific differences in the magnitude of detectability and the factors influencing it, reinforcing the need to consider determinants of detectability in study design and to account for them during analysis. Photographic detectability of snow leopard was noticeably lower than that of red fox, but comparable to detectability of stone marten. Site-specific attributes such as the presence of carnivore sign ( snow Leopard), terrain ( snow leopard and red fox) and application for lures ( red fox) influenced detectability. For the most part, detection probability was constant over time. 4. Species- specific differences in factors determining detectability make camera trap studies targeting multiple species particularly vulnerable to misinterpretation if the hierarchical origin of the data is ignored. Investigators should consider not only the magnitude of detectability, but also the shape of the curve describing the cumulative process of photographic detection, as this has consequences for both determining survey effort and the election of analytical models. Weighted time-to -event analysis can complement occupancy analysis and other hierarchal methods by providing additional tools for exploring camera trap data and testing hypotheses regarding the temporal aspect of photographic evidence accumulation. |
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Mallon, D. (2013). Trophy Hunting of Cites-Listed Species in Central Asia.
Abstract: Executive Summary:
The report is part of a project aiming to strengthen capacities to implement CITES, especially in Central Asia and to satisfy the CITES‐related requirements of trading partners, to prevent overexploitation and to ensure legal international trade in wild fauna and flora does not exceed sustainable levels. The objective is to enhance the policies and regulations concerning trophy hunting in selected range States of the Argali Ovis ammon: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, the Russian Federation, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan and to provide a framework for the establishment of sustainable hunting programmes that support conservation. This report is focused on the relevance of trophy hunting for conservation and associated local livelihoods. Sustainable use of biological diversity is an integral part of the Convention on Biodiversity (1992) and is seen as a valuable tool in conserving biological diversity. The Addis Ababa Principles and Guidelines (AAPG) set out the basis for sustainable use of natural resources. The IUCN SSC1 Guiding Principles on Trophy Hunting as a Tool for Creating Conservation Incentives, and the European Charter on Hunting and Biodiversity provide further guidance on the sustainability of trophy hunting, including on highly threatened species. The International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation (CIC) together with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has also developed Best Practice Guidelines for trophy hunting. All five project countries are Parties to CITES, except Tajikistan, which has begun the accession process. Argali are the focus of the trophy hunting in the region and they represent the most expensive trophy in the five project countries. Other CITES‐listed hunting species are Brown Bear Ursus arctos, Wolf Canis lupus, Musk Deer Moschus moschiferus, Eurasian Lynx Lynx lynx (all mainly in Russia) and Houbara Bustard Chlamydotis undulata. Markhor Capra falconeri and Urial Ovis orientalis have also been hunted at times but are not the object of regular trophy hunting programmes at present. Other widely hunted species are not listed in the CITES Appendices. A recent analysis by TRAFFIC of the CITES trade database showed that 10 245 hunting trophy items from species listed in the CITES Appendices were exported from the project countries between 2000 and 2010. Almost all trophy items consisted of Argali, Brown Bear and Wolf. Most were exported from Russia (9473 trophies), with smaller numbers from Tajikistan (705), Kyrgyzstan (668), and Kazakhstan (126), and 13 from Uzbekistan. In the region, wildlife is generally the property of the State, which awards rights to use it to individuals or other entities. National legislation covering hunting and wildlife protection may refer to sustainable use but this is undefined. The legal rights of local communities are also not generally specified. FAO and CIC produced a review of national legislation that set out in detail the basic principles of sustainable wildlife management laws (2008). One of the main findings was that legislative frameworks in the region frequently consisted of different legal instruments that were not always harmonized and sometimes overlapped. In some cases, there was also a lack of institutional clarity, with overlapping jurisdictions among different agencies. Poaching for meat and trophies or commercial products is a significant factor across the whole region, negatively affecting all the main hunting species, as well as protected species. Wild populations have been reduced, sometimes drastically so. Poaching of Argali and other mountain ungulates may be carried out by military or border personnel and is not restricted to areas outside formal nature reserves: indeed, law enforcement and protected area staff are sometimes complicit in illegal hunting, driven in part by the very low salaries. There are numerous recent examples of poaching and illegal trade in trophies of CITES‐listed species. The actual level of illegal off‐take is unknown. Known cases may represent a very small fraction of the real total. The wildlife conservation sector is under‐resourced across the region with a lack of funding, trained personnel, transport and other equipment severely limiting the effectiveness of anti‐poaching efforts. Memoranda of Understanding under the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS MoUs) and their associated action plans for Saiga Saiga tatarica and Bukhara Deer Cervus elaphus bactrianus have proven to be effective instruments in facilitating species recovery. A CMS Single Species Action Plan for Argali is in preparation (Roettger & Singh, in prep) and will provide a framework for conservation. Trophy hunting in the region is predominantly organized on a commercial basis. Community‐based hunting initiatives in the region are in their infancy and face some legal and institutional obstacles. There are however promising developments: for example, five community‐based NGOs in Tajikistan are managing wildlife in legally assigned areas and three of them have hosted hunting clients (on non‐CITES species). Well‐developed community‐based trophy hunting programmes operate in Pakistan, targeted at Markhor Capra falconeri which is listed in CITES Appendix I, and in Namibia, which is widely seen as a leader in such programmes, and while the specific conditions and sociopolitical background of both differ in several ways from those in the region, they nonetheless provide instructive guidance on the principles of successful community conservancy organization. There is an extensive literature on trophy hunting, its potential to contribute to conservation of biodiversity and local livelihoods, and the potential negative effects of selective harvesting on species. The consensus view seems to be that selective harvest of trophy‐age males does not impact negatively in the short term, if only a low proportion of the available trophy‐age individuals are harvested, but uncontrolled harvest can lead to a decline in horn size and thus trophy quality, as well as have negative demographic effects. Trophy hunting programmes raise substantial revenues in some African countries, and in the best cases significant sums are received at community or conservancy level. However, this is not universally the case and inequitable benefit sharing remains a major challenge to be overcome. Good governance is an essential requirement when developing hunting and other forms of community based management initiative. A possible decline in size of Argali trophies in Kyrgyzstan has been reported and determining whether this is actually the case, and the causes, is a priority. Standardized monitoring, involvement of independent experts, transparency in quota setting and allocation of licences are all seen as prerequisites of well‐managed and sustainable hunting operations. Allocation of long‐term leases for concessions is needed to motivate managers to invest in anti‐poaching and other conservation measures and remove the temptation for short‐term profit that threatens the sustainability of the resource. Developing all forms of Community‐based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) – trophy hunting and tourism – is also recommended. As the concept is still new to many parts of the region, and the legal‐political background is not always sympathetic, building on examples of existing community conservancies (in Tajikistan) or where there is an administrative basis for local management of resources (Kyrgyzstan), is likely to be effective. Ensuring that communities and conservancies are legally empowered to manage and utilise wildlife and to receive revenues for such use is a basic requirement. Recommendations on good practice are set out in several publications and salient points relevant to the region are highlighted. |
Sharma, K., Bayrakcismith, R., Tumursukh, L., Johansson, O., Sevger, P., McCarthy, T., Mishra, C. (2014). Vigorous Dynamics Underlie a Stable Population of the Endangered Snow Leopard Panthera uncia in Tost Mountains, South Gobi, Mongolia. Plos One, 9(7).
Abstract: Population monitoring programmes and estimation of vital rates are key to understanding the mechanisms of population growth, decline or stability, and are important for effective conservation action. We report, for the first time, the population trends and vital rates of the endangered snow leopard based on camera trapping over four years in the Tost Mountains, South Gobi, Mongolia. We used robust design multi-season mark-recapture analysis to estimate the trends in abundance, sex ratio, survival probability and the probability of temporary emigration and immigration for adult and young snow leopards. The snow leopard population remained constant over most of the study period, with no apparent growth (l = 1.08+20.25). Comparison of model results with the ‘‘known population’’ of radio-collared snow leopards suggested
high accuracy in our estimates. Although seemingly stable, vigorous underlying dynamics were evident in this population, with the adult sex ratio shifting from being male-biased to female-biased (1.67 to 0.38 males per female) during the study. Adult survival probability was 0.82 (SE+20.08) and that of young was 0.83 (SE+20.15) and 0.77 (SE +20.2) respectively, before and after the age of 2 years. Young snow leopards showed a high probability of temporary emigration and immigration (0.6, SE +20.19 and 0.68, SE +20.32 before and after the age of 2 years) though not the adults (0.02 SE+20.07). While the current female-bias in the population and the number of cubs born each year seemingly render the study population safe, the vigorous dynamics suggests that the situation can change quickly. The reduction in the proportion of male snow leopards may be indicative of continuing anthropogenic pressures. Our work reiterates the importance of monitoring both the abundance and population dynamics of species for effective conservation. |
Mallon, D., Kulikov, M. (2015). Transboundary Snow Leopard Conservation in Central Asia: Report of the FFI/CMS Workshop, 1-2 December 2014. |
Braden, K. (2015). Illegal recreational hunting in Russia: the role of social norms and elite violators. Eurasian Geography and Economics, .
Abstract: Poaching in Russia has been reported to be of catastrophic proportions and threatens
maintenance of biodiversity. Management of game species has stabilized some numbers, but both endangered species listed in the Russian Red Book and animals traditionally viewed as hunting prey are diminishing in some regions. Rank-and-file hunters, increasingly shut off from access to hunting grounds, have expressed a negative reaction to new hunting regulations adopted by the Russian government in 2012. While high-profile poaching incidents by so-called “VIP hunters” do not apparently make up a large portion of cases, the symbolism of the alleged crimes has a derogatory impact on ordinary hunters because lawlessness is reinforced by perceptions of impunity for elite poachers. Keywords: Russia; hunting; poaching; wildlife crime; power elite
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Rodgers, T. W., Janecka, J. E. (2013). Applications and techniques for non-invasive faecal genetics research in felid conservation.
Abstract: Non-invasive genetic techniques utilising DNA extracted from faeces hold great promise for felid conservation research. These methods can be used to establish species
distributions, model habitat requirements, analyse diet, estimate abundance and population density, and form the basis for population, landscape and conservation genetic analyses. Due to the elusive nature of most felid species, non-invasive genetic methods have the potential to provide valuable data that cannot be obtained with traditional observational or capture techniques. Thus, these methods are particularly valuable for research and conservation of endangered felid species. Here, we review recent studies that use non-invasive faecal genetic techniques to survey or study wild felids; provide an overview of field, laboratory and analysis techniques; and offer suggestions on how future non-invasive genetic studies can be expanded or improved to more effectively support conservation. |
Alexander, J. S., Gopalswamy, A. M., Shi, K., Riordan, P. (2015). Face Value: Towards Robust Estimates of Snow Leopard Densities. Plos One, .
Abstract: When densities of large carnivores fall below certain thresholds, dramatic ecological effects
can follow, leading to oversimplified ecosystems. Understanding the population status of such species remains a major challenge as they occur in low densities and their ranges are wide. This paper describes the use of non-invasive data collection techniques combined with recent spatial capture-recapture methods to estimate the density of snow leopards Panthera uncia. It also investigates the influence of environmental and human activity indicators on their spatial distribution. A total of 60 camera traps were systematically set up during a three-month period over a 480 km2 study area in Qilianshan National Nature Reserve, Gansu Province, China. We recorded 76 separate snow leopard captures over 2,906 trapdays, representing an average capture success of 2.62 captures/100 trap-days. We identified a total number of 20 unique individuals from photographs and estimated snow leopard density at 3.31 (SE = 1.01) individuals per 100 km2. Results of our simulation exercise indicate that our estimates from the Spatial Capture Recapture models were not optimal to respect to bias and precision (RMSEs for density parameters less or equal to 0.87). Our results underline the critical challenge in achieving sufficient sample sizes of snow leopard captures and recaptures. Possible performance improvements are discussed, principally by optimising effective camera capture and photographic data quality. |
Alexander, J. S., Zhang, C., Shi, K., Riordan, P. (2016). A spotlight on snow leopard conservation in China. Integrative Zoology, (11).
Abstract: China holds the greatest proportion of the snow leopard’s (Panthera uncia) global range and is central to their conservation. The country is also undergoing unprecedented economic growth, which increases both the threats to the snow leopard and the opportunities for its conservation. In this paper we aim to review published literature (from 1950 to 2014) in English and Mandarin on snow leopard ecology and conservation in China in order to identify thematic and geographic research gaps and propose research priorities. We first retrieved all publish items that considered snow leopards in China (n = 106). We extracted from these papers 274 reports of snow leopard presence in China. We then reviewed a subset of papers (n = 33) of this literature, which specifically focused on snow leopard ecology and conservation within China. We introduced a thematic framework that allows a structured and comprehensive assessment of findings. This framework recognizes 4 critical and interrelated topics underpinning snow leopard ecology and conservation: habitat (distribution and protected area coverage); prey (distribution and abundance, predator–prey relationships); human interactions (hunting and trade, livestock interactions and conflicts); and the underlying policy context. Significant gains in knowledge as well as research gaps and priorities are discussed with reference to our framework. The modest quantity and limited scope of published research on the snow leopard in China calls for a continued and intensified effort to inform and support national conservation policies.
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Guoliang, P., Alexander, J. S., Riordan, P., Shi, K., Kederhan, Yang, H. (2016). Detection of a snow leopard population in northern Bortala, Xinjiang, China. Cat News, (63).
Abstract: We substantiate the presence of snow leopards Panthera uncia using camera
traps within the Dzungarian Alatau range in Bortala Mongolia Autonomous Prefecture, Xinjiang Province, China. A total of 13 camera trap stations were set up in 2012 and a total of 14 camera trap stations in 2013 within an area of 192 km2. A total of 11-15 individual adult snow leopards and two sub adults were identified from photo captures of sufficient quality. A range of human activities were noted within and surrounding the survey area, including livestock herding and mining. We recommend more large scale and intensive camera trap surveys to further assess the population status of the snow leopard within this area |