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Vannelli, K., Hampton, M. P., Namgail, T., Black, S. A. (2019). Community participation in ecotourism and its effect on local
perceptions of snow leopard (Panthera uncia) conservation. Human Dimensions of Wildlife, , 1–14.
Abstract: Local support and involvement is often essential for effective
wildlife conservation. This study assessed the impact of local involvement in ecotourism schemes on perceptions of wildlife, promotion of conservation action, types of values that communities placed on wildlife, and contexts in which wildlife are considered to be most valuable. The study used qualitative semi-structured interviews conducted in seven villages in Ladakh, India, which is an important region of snow leopard (Panthera uncia) habitat. Results indicated that in these communities, ecotourism-based interventions encourage more positive perceptions of wildlife species, in particular the snow leopard. Achieving change in community perceptions of wildlife is key when implementing ecotourism schemes to enable more effective conservation, as well as generating local awareness and value for wildlife toward problematic keystone species such as the snow leopard, which are frequently the focus of human-wildlife conflict. |
Pathak, A., Lamichhane, S., Dhakal, M., Karki, A., Dhakal, B. D., Chetri, M., Mintz, J., Pun, P., Neupane, P., Dahal, T. P., Rayamajhi, T., Paudel, P., Thapa, A., Regmi, P. R., Thami, S., Thapa, G., Khanal, S., Lama, S., Karki, J., Khanal, S., Ferdin, A. E. J. (2024). Human-wildlife conflict at high altitude: A case from Gaurishankar conservation area, Nepal. Ecology and Evolution, 14(e11685), 1–9.
Abstract: Human–wildlife conflict studies of high-altitude areas are rare due to budget constraints and the challenging nature of research in these remote environments. This study investigates the prevalence and increasing trend of human–wildlife conflict (HWC) in the mountainous Gaurishankar Conservation Area (GCA) of Nepal, with a specific focus on leopard (Panthera pardus) and Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibetanus laniger). The study analyzes a decade of HWC reports and identifies goats as the livestock most targeted by leopards. The Dolakha district of GCA received the highest number of reports, highlighting the need for mitigation measures in the area. In GCA, livestock attacks accounted for 85% of compensation, with the remaining 15% for human injuries. We estimate that the number of reported wildlife attacks grew on average by 33% per year, with an additional increase of 57 reports per year following the implementation of a new compensation policy during BS 2076 (2019 AD). While bear attacks showed no significant change post-rule alteration, leopard attack reports surged from 1 to 60 annually, indicating improved compensation may have resulted in increased leopard-attack reporting rates. The findings emphasize the economic impact of HWC on local communities and suggest strategies such as increasing prey populations, promoting community education and awareness, enhancing alternative livelihood options, developing community-based insurance programs, and implementing secure enclosures (corrals) to minimize conflicts and foster harmonious coexistence. This research addresses a knowledge gap in HWC in high- altitude conservation areas like the GCA, providing valuable insights for conservation stakeholders and contributing to biodiversity conservation and the well-being of humans and wildlife.
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Maheshwari, A., Sathyakumar, S. (2019). Snow leopard stewardship in mitigating human-wildlife conflict in Hemis National Park, Ladakh, India. Human Dimensions of Wildlife, , 1–5.
Abstract: Among large predators, snow leopards (Panthera uncia) and co-predators (e.g., wolves
Canis lupus, lynx Lynx lynx) often cause economic losses, engendering animosity from local communities in the mountain ecosystem across south and central Asia (Din et al., 2017; Jackson & Lama, 2016; Maheshwari, Takpa, Kujur, & Shawl, 2010; Schaller, 2012). These economic losses range from around US $50 to nearly $300 per household, a significant sum given per capita annual incomes of $250 – $400 (Jackson & Wangchuk, 2004; Mishra, 1997). Recent efforts such as improved livestock husbandry practices (predator-proof livestock corrals – closed night shelters with covered roof with wiremesh and a closely fitting iron or wooden door that can be securely locked at night) and community-based ecotourism (e.g., home stays, guides, porters, pack animals, campsites) are providing alternative livelihood opportunities and mitigating large carnivores – human conflict in the snow leopard habitats (Hanson, Schutgens, & Baral, 2018; Jackson, 2015; Jackson & Lama, 2016; Vannelli, Hampton, Namgail, & Black, 2019). Snow leopard-based ecotourism provides an opportunity to secure livelihoods and reduce poverty of the communities living in ecotourism sites across Ladakh (Chandola, 2012; Jackson, 2015). To understand the role of snow leopard-based ecotourism in uplifting the financial profile of local communities, mitigating large carnivore – human conflict and eventually changing attitudes towards large carnivores in Hemis National Park, Ladakh, India, we compared the estimated financial gains of a snow leopard-based ecotourism to stated livestock predation losses by snow leopards and wolves. Keywords: Snow leopard; human-wildlife conflict; ecotourism; livelihood; India
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Hanson, J. H., Schutgens, M., Lama, R.P., Aryal, A., Dhakal, M. (2018). Local attitudes to the proposed translocation of blue sheep Pseudois nayaur to Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal. Fauna & Flora International, , 1–7.
Abstract: Translocations are an important tool for the conservation
of biodiversity, but although ecological feasibility studies are frequently conducted prior to implementation, social feasibility studies that consider how local communities perceive such projects are less common. The translocation of blue sheep Pseudois nayaur to Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal, has been proposed, to reduce livestock depredation by snow leopards Panthera uncia by providing an alternative prey base in addition to the small population of Himalayan thar Hemitragus jemlahicus. This study used systematic sampling, a quantitative questionnaire and qualitative interviews within the Park to provide data on the social viability of the proposed translocation. Quantitative analysis revealed moderate levels of support but qualitative analysis suggested that there are significant concerns about the proposal. In addition,multiple regression analysis found that women and livestock owners were significantly less supportive, although the model had low explanatory power. Potential crop damage and competition for forage were frequently cited as concerns, especially amongst those with a high level of dependence on natural resources. Given the mixed response to the proposed translocation of blue sheep to the Everest region, alleviating the reservations of local residents is likely to be key to any further consultation, planning or implementation. |
Rovero, F., Augugliaro, C., Havmoller, R. W., Groff, C., Zimmerman, F., Oberosler, V., Tenan, S. (2018). Co-occurrence of snow leopard Panthera uncia, Siberian ibex Capra sibirica and livestock: potential relationships and effects. Oryx, , 1–7.
Abstract: Understanding the impact of livestock on native
wildlife is of increasing conservation relevance. For the Vulnerable snow leopard Panthera uncia, wild prey reduction, intensifying human�wildlife conflicts and retaliatory killings are severe threats potentially exacerbated by the presence of livestock. Elucidating patterns of co-occurrence of snow leopards, wild ungulate prey, and livestock, can be used to assess the compatibility of pastoralism with conservation. We used camera trapping to study the interactions of livestock, Siberian ibex Capra sibirica and snow leopards in a national park in the Altai mountains, Mongolia. We obtained  detections of wild mammals and  of domestic ungulates, dogs and humans. Snow leopards and Siberian ibex were recorded  and  times, respectively. Co-occurrence modelling showed that livestock had a higher estimated occupancy (.) than ibex, whose occupancy was lower in the presence of livestock (.) than in its absence (.�. depending on scenarios modelled). Snow leopard occupancy did not appear to be affected by the presence of livestock or ibex but the robustness of such inference was limited by uncertainty around the estimates. Although our sampling at presumed snow leopard passing sites may have led to fewer ibex detections, results indicate that livestock may displace wild ungulates, but may not directly affect the occurrence of snow leopards. Snow leopards could still be threatened by livestock, as overstocking can trigger human�carnivore conflicts and hamper the conservation of large carnivores. Further research is needed to assess the generality and strength of our results. |
Chen, P., Gao, Y., Lee, A. T. L., Cering, L., Shi, K., Clark, S. G. (2016). Human–carnivore coexistence in Qomolangma (Mt. Everest) Nature Reserve, China: Patterns and compensation. Biological Conservation, (197), 18–26.
Abstract: Livestock depredation by large carnivores is frequently reported in Qomolangma (Mt. Everest) National Nature Reserve, Tibet Autonomous Region of China. Seeking to minimize conflicts, we assessed depredation patterns and ways to upgrade the compensation program. We gathered 9193 conflict records over 2011–2013 to determine the extent and tempo-spatial patterns of the depredation.Weinterviewed 22 local officials and 94 residents to learn their views on depredations and to assess the adequacy of compensation. Data showed that wolves (Canis lupus), lynx (Lynx lynx), and snowleopards (Panthera uncia)were themajor livestock predators. Total livestock
loss accounted for 1.2% of the entire stockholding (n=846,707) in the region. Wolves and lynx tended to take sheep and goats,whereas snowleopards favored yaks and cattle in relation to their proportional abundance. Predation mostly occurred in March through July. Livestock depredation by all predators when combined was best explained by terrain ruggedness and density of small- and large-bodied livestock. Temporal and spatial predation patterns variedamong carnivores.Most respondents (74%) attributed depredation causes to an increase in carnivore abundance. Only 7% blamed lax livestock herding practice for predation losses. Five percent said that predation was the result of livestock population increases, while 11% had no idea. The compensation scheme was found to be flawed in all aspects—predation verification, application procedure, compensation standard, operational resource allocation, making payment, and other problems. To enhance management for human–carnivore coexistence, we recommend a problem-oriented, integrated, adaptive approach that targets the complex social context of the conflict and addresses the interconnected functions of decision-making process. |
Suryawanshi, K. R., Bhatia, S., Bhatnagar, Y. V., Redpath, S., Mishra, C. (2014). Multiscale Factors Affecting Human Attitudes toward Snow Leopards and Wolves. Conservation biology, 00, 1–10.
Abstract: The threat posed by large carnivores to livestock and humans makes peaceful coexistence between
them difficult. Effective implementation of conservation laws and policies depends on the attitudes of local residents toward the target species. There are many known correlates of human attitudes toward carnivores, but they have only been assessed at the scale of the individual. Because human societies are organized hierarchically, attitudes are presumably influenced by different factors at different scales of social organization, but this scale dependence has not been examined.We used structured interview surveys to quantitatively assess the attitudes of a Buddhist pastoral community toward snow leopards (Panthera uncia) and wolves (Canis lupus). We interviewed 381 individuals from 24 villages within 6 study sites across the high-elevation Spiti Valley in the Indian Trans-Himalaya. We gathered information on key explanatory variables that together captured variation in individual and village-level socioeconomic factors.We used hierarchical linear models to examine how the effect of these factors on human attitudes changed with the scale of analysis from the individual to the community. Factors significant at the individual level were gender, education, and age of the respondent (for wolves and snow leopards), number of income sources in the family (wolves), agricultural production, and large-bodied livestock holdings (snow leopards). At the community level, the significant factors included the number of smaller-bodied herded livestock killed by wolves and mean agricultural production (wolves) and village size and large livestock holdings (snow leopards). Our results show that scaling up from the individual to higher levels of social organization can highlight important factors that influence attitudes of people toward wildlife and toward formal conservation efforts in general. Such scale-specific information can help managers apply conservation measures at appropriate scales. Our results reiterate the need for conflict management programs to be multipronged. |
Maheshwari, A., Midha, N., Chehrukupalli, A. (2014). Participatory Rural Appraisal and Compensation Intervention: Challenges and Protocols While Managing Large Carnivore–Human Conflict. Human Dimensions of Wildlife: An International Journal, 19, 62–71.
Abstract: When large carnivores cause socioeconomic losses in a community, conflict increases,
retaliatory killing of the carnivore can occur, and conservation efforts are undermined. We focused on Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and economic compensation schemes as approaches for managing conflict. PRA is a tool for collecting data on the large carnivore–human conflict and economic compensation schemes for those affected negatively by carnivore presence. We reviewed published papers and reports on large carnivore–human conflicts, PRA, and compensation schemes. This article details insights into common pitfalls, key lessons learned, possible solutions including new approaches for compensation and protocols to be followed while managing large carnivore–human conflict. We hope to contribute to a meaningful dialogue between locals, managers, and researchers and help in effective implementation of conservation programs to mitigate large carnivore–human conflict around the protected areas. |
Li, J., Yin, H., Wang, D., Jiagong, Z., Lu, Zhi. (2013). Human-snow leopard conflicts in the Sanjiangyuan Region of the Tibetan Plateau. Biological Conservs, (166), 118–123.
Abstract: Conflicts between humans and snow leopards are documented across much of their overlapping distribution
in Central Asia. These conflicts manifest themselves primarily in the form of livestock depredation and the killing of snow leopards by local herders. This source of mortality to snow leopards is a key conservation concern. To investigate human-snow leopard conflicts in the Sanjiangyuan Region of the Tibetan Plateau, we conducted household interviews about local herders’ traditional use of snow leopard parts, livestock depredation, and overall attitudes towards snow leopards. We found most respondents (58%) knew that snow leopard parts had been used for traditional customs in the past, but they claimed not in the past two or three decades. It may be partly due to the issuing of the Protection of Wildlife Law in 1998 by the People’s Republic of China. Total livestock losses were damaging (US$ 6193 per household in the past 1 year), however snow leopards were blamed by herders for only a small proportion of those losses (10%), as compared to wolves (45%) and disease (42%). Correspondingly, the cultural images of snow leopards were neutral (78%) and positive (9%) on the whole. It seems that human-snow leopard conflict is not intense in this area. However, snow leopards could be implicated by the retaliatory killing of wolves. We recommend a multi-pronged conservation program that includes compensation, insurance programs, and training local veterinarians to reduce livestock losses. |
Suryawanshi, K. R., Bhatnagar, Y. V. B., Redpath, S., Mishra, C. (2013). People, predators and perceptions: patterns of livestock depredation by snow leopards and wolves. Journal of Applied Ecology, 50, 550–560.
Abstract: 1. Livestock depredation by large carnivores is an important conservation and economic concern
and conservation management would benefit from a better understanding of spatial variation and underlying causes of depredation events. Focusing on the endangered snow leopard Panthera uncia and the wolf Canis lupus, we identify the ecological factors that predispose areas within a landscape to livestock depredation. We also examine the potential mismatch between reality and human perceptions of livestock depredation by these carnivores whose survival is threatened due to persecution by pastoralists. 2. We assessed the distribution of the snow leopard, wolf and wild ungulate prey through field surveys in the 4000 km2 Upper Spiti Landscape of trans-Himalayan India. We interviewed local people in all 25 villages to assess the distribution of livestock and peoples’ perceptions of the risk to livestock from these carnivores. We monitored village-level livestock mortality over a 2-year period to assess the actual level of livestock depredation. We quantified several possibly influential independent variables that together captured variation in topography, carnivore abundance and abundance and other attributes of livestock. We identified the key variables influencing livestock depredation using multiple logistic regressions and hierarchical partitioning. 3. Our results revealed notable differences in livestock selectivity and ecological correlates of livestock depredation – both perceived and actual – by snow leopards and wolves. Stocking density of large-bodied free-ranging livestock (yaks and horses) best explained people’s threat perception of livestock depredation by snow leopards, while actual livestock depredation was explained by the relative abundance of snow leopards and wild prey. In the case of wolves, peoples’ perception was best explained by abundance of wolves, while actual depredation by wolves was explained by habitat structure. 4. Synthesis and applications. Our results show that (i) human perceptions can be at odds with actual patterns of livestock depredation, (ii) increases in wild prey populations will intensify livestock depredation by snow leopards, and prey recovery programmes must be accompanied by measures to protect livestock, (iii) compensation or insurance programmes should target large-bodied livestock in snow leopard habitats and (iv) sustained awareness programmes are much needed, especially for the wolf. |