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Ghoshal, A., Bhatnagar, Y. V., Pandav, B., Sharma, K., Mshra, C. (2017). Assessing changes in distribution of the Endangered snow leopard Panthera uncia and its wild prey over 2 decades in the Indian Himalaya through interviewbased occupancy surveys. Oryx, , 1–13.
Abstract: Understanding species distributions, patterns of
change and threats can form the basis for assessing the conservation
status of elusive species that are difficult to survey.
The snow leopard Panthera uncia is the top predator of the
Central and South Asian mountains. Knowledge of the distribution
and status of this elusive felid and its wild prey is
limited. Using recall-based key-informant interviews we estimated
site use by snow leopards and their primary wild
prey, blue sheep Pseudois nayaur and Asiatic ibex Capra
sibirica, across two time periods (past: �; recent:
�) in the state of Himachal Pradesh, India. We
also conducted a threat assessment for the recent period.
Probability of site use was similar across the two time periods
for snow leopards, blue sheep and ibex, whereas for wild
prey (blue sheep and ibex combined) overall there was an
% contraction. Although our surveys were conducted in
areas within the presumed distribution range of the snow
leopard, we found snow leopards were using only % of
the area (, km). Blue sheep and ibex had distinct distribution
ranges. Snow leopards and their wild prey were not
restricted to protected areas, which encompassed only %
of their distribution within the study area. Migratory livestock
grazing was pervasive across ibex distribution range
and was the most widespread and serious conservation
threat. Depredation by free-ranging dogs, and illegal hunting
and wildlife trade were the other severe threats. Our
results underscore the importance of community-based, landscape-
scale conservation approaches and caution against reliance
on geophysical and opinion-based distribution maps that have been used to estimate national and global snow leopard ranges.
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Hacker, C., Atzeni, L., Munkhtsog, B., Munkhtsog, B., Galsandorj, N., Zhang, Y., Liu, Y., Buyanaa, C., Bayandonoi, G., Ochirjav, M., Farrington, J. D., Jevit, M., Zhang, Y., Wu, L. Cong, W., Li, D., Gavette, C., Jackson, R., Janecka, J. E. (2022). Genetic diversity and spatial structures of snow leopards (Panthera uncia) reveal proxies of connectivity across Mongolia and northwestern China. Landscape Ecology, , 1–19.
Abstract: Understanding landscape connectivity and population genetic parameters is imperative for threatened species management. However, such information is lacking for the snow leopard (Panthera uncia). This study sought to explore hierarchical snow leopard gene flow patterns and drivers of genetic structure in Mongolia and China. A total of 97 individuals from across Mongolia and from the north-eastern edge of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau in Gansu Province to the middle of Qinghai Province in China were genotyped across 24 microsatellite loci. Distance-based frameworks were used to determine a landscape scenario best explaining observed genetic structure. Spatial and non-spatial methods were used to investigate fine-scale autocorrelation and similarity patterns as well as genetic structure and admixture. A genetic macro-division between populations in China and Mongolia was observed, suggesting that the Gobi Desert is a substantial barrier to gene flow. However, admixture and support for a resistance-based mode of isolation suggests connective routes that could facilitate movement. Populations in Mongolia had greater connectivity, indicative of more continuous habitat. Drivers of genetic structure in China were difficult to discern, and fine-scale sampling is needed. This study elucidates snow leopard landscape connectivity and helps to prioritize conservation areas. Although contact zones may have existed and occasional crossings can occur, establishing corridors to connect these areas should not be a priority. Focus should be placed on maintaining the relatively high connectivity for snow leopard populations within Mongolia and increasing research efforts in China.
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Riddell, M. L. G. (2004). Snow Leopard Expedition Kazakhstan 2004.
Abstract: This Newcastle University Expedition reviewed the conflict between man and snow leopard in the region east of Tekeli in the Dzhungarian Alatau range, Kazakhstan. After the soviet state breakup in 1991 snow leopards in Kazakhstan and in the other Asian republics were subjected to high levels of persecution. There are thought to be between 180-200 snow leopards in Kazakhstan, of which 37-40 individuals inhabit the Dzhungarian Mountains. No work has been done previously to review the present snow leopard-human conflicts in this region, and this project looked to update previous reports from Central Asia about predominant conflicts in these regions. The expedition team worked with the Institute of Zoology in Kazakhstan and two of the six person team were Kazakh students. Methods comparable to those used in previous studies were used to map and rank the threats in the western area of the range, over an eight week period. The expedition team lived in the mountains for periods of two-three weeks, carrying all their food and equipment and using local vehicles, horses and trekking to move from pasture to pasture. Semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews and prey counts were used to assess snow leopard-human conflicts including poaching of snow leopard, poaching of leopard wild prey, human disturbance and livestock overgrazing. The results from the report support much previous work from Kazakhstan and other areas in Central Asia, but serve as a useful update shedding light on an optimistic future for snow leopard conservation while highlighting what the expedition team perceives to be the major threats to snow leopards. The threats to snow leopards, in order of relevance from most to least, are loss of prey predominantly through hunting by local people (both legal and illegal), direct hunting of snowleopard for pelt/medicine, disturbance by herders on the pastures, snow leopard habitat fragmentation around the mountain bases, and least importantly overgrazing by domestic livestock. Retaliatory kills by herders are not a threat in the region and on livestock were killed by snow leopards. Levels of all hunting, legal and illegal, need to be reduced in the range until wildlife populations have recovered significantly from the mid-1990's over-hunting period. Levels of rural corruption among many stakeholders were high around the mountain region, and are thought to contribute negatively to wildlife conservation in the area. Ecotourism in the area, that incorporates local people around the mountain region, is proposed as a solution to offer local people's incentives to lower hunting levels. This report makes the following main recommendations:
ÿStrengthening law enforcement capacity
ÿIncreasing the number of ecological rangers
ÿIncreasing incentives of ecological rangers to prevent poaching
ÿEquipping the ecological rangers more sufficiently
ÿMore effective communication between ranger and National Park administrative regions
ÿThe involvement of all stakeholders in wildlife conservation including military officials and local herders
ÿWhistle blower policies to prevent illegal trade in all animals in the region
ÿMore geographic consistency between present and proposed protected areas in the region
Accurate snow leopard monitoring to build on valuable information previously collected in Kazakhstan
Provision of local incentives (ecotourism and community based hunting reserves) to reduce local hunting and local unemployment around the mountains
Increased interest and technical assistance in Kazakhstan from conservation International Non-Governmental Organizations
More government fund for the Institute of Zoology
Stronger cross border (Kazakhstan-China) legislation implementation Further research could involve establishing an annual, standardized, snow leopard
survey in the range, or could compare these findings of threats to snow leopards to other regions in Kazakhstan (eg. The Altai) or Central Asia.
This report has been replicated for all the expedition sponsors, put on the internet, and
distributed among contacts in the snow leopard conservation community.
The expedition team also spent some time exploring and photographing some of the remoter valleys around the study pastures, and made a short video of the teams exploits. Links were made between KIMEP University in Almaty, and Newcastle University, registered a research centre with the Royal Geographical Society, and lectured about the Dzhungarian range and snow leopard conservation at; the Royal Geographical Society, Newcastle University, Royal Zoological Society for Scotland(Edinburgh Zoo), and Wilderness Lecturers (Bristol).
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Limbu, R. (1999). Snow Leopards could save Mountain Biodiversity.
Abstract: The woman in the picture is wrapped in a luxurious fur coat and hat. The distinctly spotted pelt is that of a snow leopard -- that elusive and endangered species found in the mountains of central and south Asia. “A coat like that would probably cost $60,000-$80,000 in a big shop,” said Dr Rodney Jackson at a presentation he made recently on the status of his favorite subject. “Fortunately, changing norms of the fashion world and increasing consumer awareness (mean that) fewer people are wearing snow leopard pelts,” noted Dr Jackson, Conservation Director of the International Snow Leopard Trust. Still, the threat of extinction persists, he warns. “The demand for fur may have gone down but the demand for bones and body parts as marketable items for use in traditional Chinese medicine has gone up.” Further, conflict with humans is rapidly becoming the single most important issue, he said.
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Jain, N., Wangchuk, R., & Jackson, R. (2003). An Assessment of CBT and Homestay Sites in Spiti District, Himachal Pradesh.
Abstract: The survey described in this report builds upon prior CBT activities undertaken by The Mountain Institute (TMI) in partnership with the Snow Leopard Conservancy (SLC) in Ladakh, supported by a grant from UNESCO (with co-financing from SLC). Under the evolving concept of “Himalayan Homestays”, initially developed and tested in Ladakh, it is proposed that activities be expanded to selected states in India in a strategic and effective way. Himalayan Homestays are part of a larger integrated program to link snow leopard conservation with local livelihoods in Asia.
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Sunquist, F. (1997). Where cats and herders mix. (snow leopards in Tibet and Mongolia). International Wildlife, 27(1), 27–33.
Abstract: The snow leopard inhabits a huge range of territory which encompasses some of Central Asia's most bleak and inhospitable terrains. The animal herders in these regions are desperately poor and yet they have agreed to cooperate with conservation groups in protecting the snow leopard. The World Wildlife Foundation has worked to create a refuge on the Pakistan-China border. Sheep herders near Askole, a village in the Baltistan region of northern Paksitan, drive their flocks past stone enclosures. The area is also home to snow leopards. With their natural prey dminished, leopards in 13 countries of central Asia occasionally feed on livestock, putting the cats on a collision course with mountain peoples.
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Anandakrishnan, M. B. (1998). The snow leopard: Elusive and endangered. The Environmental Magazine, 9(5), 18–19.
Abstract: The snow leopard has never been common, but there may be fewer than 4,000 left in its Himalayan habitat, and poaching and tourism-related development in the region could drive its numbers down further.
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Koshkarev E.P. (1990). Key areas of snow leopard's habitat as main conservation objects (Vol. Part. 1.).
Abstract: The most vulnerable key areas within the snow leopard habitat are East Kazakhstan (an area of 48,000 square km) with no protected areas network established, and South Siberia (131,000 square km), where snow leopard is protected in three nature reserves. These areas are distant from main part of the habitat, isolated and have more extreme conditions. In Central Asia's key area (213,000 square km) linked to a main Chinese-Afghani part of the habitat, snow leopard was found in 11 nature reserves and two national parks. For reliable protection of this species it would be expedient to strengthen the role of the mountain nature reserves by means of extension and amalgamation of the areas, and other measures.
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Kuznetsov B.A. (1950). The mountainous province in Central Asia (Vol. Edition 20th. (XXXV). New series. Zoological secti).
Abstract: The landscape and biologic diversity of Central Asia's mountains are described. Different types of fauna complexes are segregated. Snow leopard, dhole, and ibex are referred to Central Asia's highland species.
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Ahmad, A., Rawat, J. S., & Rai, S. C. (1990). An Analysis of the Himalayan Environment and Guidelines for its Management and Ecologically Sustainable Development. Environmentalist, 10(4), 281–298.
Abstract: The impacts of human activities on the bio-geophysical and socio-economic environment of the Himalayas are analysed. The main man-induced activities which have accelerated ecological degradation and threatened the equilibrium of Himalayan mountain ecosystems are stated as: unplanned land use, cultivation on steep slopes, overgrazing, major engineering activities, over-exploitation of village or community forests, lopping of broad leaved plant species, shifting cultivation (short cycle) in north-east India, tourism and recreation. The geomorphological conditions are major factors responsible for landslides which cause major havoc every year in the area. Wild fauna, like musk deer and the snow leopard are now under threat partially due to changes in their habitat and the introduction of exotic plant species. Population pressure and migration are major factors responsible for poverty in the hills. The emigration of the working male population has resulted in the involvement of women as a major work-force. Guidelines, with special emphasis on the application of environmental impact assessments for the management of the Himalayas, are proposed. -from Authors
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